1 HISTORY AND NATURE OF INTERNATIONAL LAW 1
1.1 Definition of International Law 6
1.2 A Brief History of International Law 7
1.3 The Nature of International Law 14
1.4 Enforcement of International Law 16
1.5 Situations to which International Law is Relevant 19
2 SOURCES OF INTERNATIONAL LAW 25
2.1 Introduction 31
2.2 Treaties 33
2.3 International Custom 35
2.4 The Relationship between Treaties and International Custom 42
2.5 Special Rules of Customary International Law： Jus Cogens and Rules Creating Erga Omnes Obligations 48
2.6 General Principles of International Law 52
2.7 Judicial Decisions 56
2.8 The Writings of Publicists 59
2.9 Equity 60
2.10 Secondary Law of International Governmental Organisations （IGOs） 62
2.11 Declarations—An Uncertain Source？ 64
2.12 Soft Law 64
2.13 Codification of International Law： The Contribution of the International Law Commission （ILC） 70
3 THE LAW OF TREATIES 76
3.1 Introduction 87
3.2 The Main Features of the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties （VCLT） 88
3.3 The Fundamental Principles of the Law of Treaties 90
3.4 The Definition of a Treaty under the VCLT 92
3.5 Conclusion of Treaties 94
3.6 Reservations to Treaties 98
3.7 Interpretative and Conditional Interpretative Declarations and their Relationship with Reservations 105
3.8 Entry into Force， Deposit， Registration and Publication of Treaties 107
3.9 Validity of Treaties 109
3.10 Application of Treaties 116
3.11 Amendment and Modification of Treaties 120
3.12 Interpretation of Treaties 122
3.13 Termination and Suspension of Treaties 127
3.14 Settlement of Disputes 134
4 INTERNATIONAL LAW AND MUNICIPAL LAW 142
4.1 Introduction 146
4.2 The Relationship between International Law and Municipal Law 146
4.3 Municipal Law before International Courts and Tribunals 149
4.4 International Law before UK Courts 152
4.5 European Union （EU） Law in UK Courts 170
5 INTERNATIONAL PERSONALITY 175
5.1 Introduction 182
5.2 States and the Criteria for Statehood 185
5.3 Independent States 192
5.4 Dependent States 194
5.5 Sui Generis Entities 197
5.6 Internationalised Territories 198
5.7 De Facto Regimes 200
5.8 Mandates and Trusteeship Territories 201
5.9 Insurgents， Belligerents and National Liberation Movements 202
5.10 Territories under UN Administration 203
5.11 International Governmental Organisations （IGOs） 204
5.12 Individuals 207
5.13 Non-Governmental Organisations （NGOs） 214
5.14 Multinational Corporations （MNCs） 216
6 RECOGNITION OF STATES， GOVERNMENTS AND INTERGOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS IN INTERNATIONAL LAW 221
6.1 Introduction 224
6.2 Recognition of a State in International Law 225
6.3 Recognition of Governments 236
6.4 Recognition of States and Governments in the Municipal Law of England 239
6.5 Recognition of IGOs in the Municipal Law of England 252
7 TERRITORIAL SOVEREIGNTY 259
7.1 Introduction 265
7.2 Different Types of Territorial Sovereignty 266
7.3 The Principles and Rules Applicable to the Acquisition of Title to Territory 268
7.4 The Modes of Acquisition of Title to Territory 276
7.5 Other Circumstances Relevant to the Acquisition of Territory 292
7.6 The Acquisition of Territory in Polar Regions 296
7.7 Restrictions on the Transfer of Territory 299
7.8 The Loss of Territory 299
7.9 Rights over Parts of Territory of a Foreign State：International Leases and Servitudes 300
8 JURISDICTION 308
8.1 Introduction 312
8.2 The Territoriality Principle 315
8.3 The Nationality Principle 317
8.4 The Protective Principle 318
8.5 The Passive Personality Principle 322
8.6 The Universality Principle 324
8.7 Universal Jurisdiction in Tort 337
8.8 Concurrent Jurisdiction 338
8.9 The ‘Effects Doctrine’ 340
8.10 Jurisdiction to Adjudicate 344
8.11 Jurisdiction to Enforce 346
9 IMMUNITY FROM NATIONAL JURISDICTION 352
9.1 Introduction 357
9.2 State Immunity， Non-Justiciability and the Act of State Doctrine 358
9.3 State Immunity and its Evolution 362
9.4 The Terrorism Exception to State Immunity under the 1976 US Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act （FSIA） and its Amendments 384
9.5 UK Law on State Immunity： The 1978 State Immunity Act （SIA） and the Common Law 386
9.6 The 2004 UN Convention on Jurisdictional Immunities of States and Their Property （The UN Immunity Convention） 392
9.7 Immunity of Heads of State and other High Ranking State Officials 395
9.8 Diplomatic Immunity 399
9.9 Quasi-Diplomatic Privileges and Immunities 407
9.10 Immunities of International Governmental Organisations （IGOs） 407
9.11 Immunities of Visiting Armed Forces 413
10 STATE RESPONSIBILITY FOR WRONGFUL ACTS 417
10.1 Introduction 424
10.2 The Theories on State Responsibility 427
10.3 imputability 431
10.4 Direct and Indirect International Wrongs 437
10.5 Direct International Wrongs： Aggrieved Responsibility 437
10.6 Direct International Wrongs： Ordinary Responsibility 440
10.7 Indirect International Wrongs： The Treatment of Aliens 443
10.8 The Treatment of Aliens： Admission and Expulsion 446
10.9 The Treatment of Aliens： Denial of Justice 449
10.10 The Treatment of Aliens： Expropriation of Foreign Property 450
10.11 Admissibility of State Claims： Diplomatic Protection 458
10.12 Circumstances Precluding Wrongfulness 477
10.13 Consequences of Invoking a Circumstance Precluding Wrongfulness 481
10.14 Reparation for injury 481
11 AN OVERVIEW OF THE INTERNATIONAL PROTECTION OF HUMAN RIGHTS 491
11.1 Introduction 499
11.2 The International Bill of Human Rights： The Universal Declaration of Human Rights and its Implementation through the 1966 Covenants 505
11.3 Other Major UN Human Rights Treaties 516
11.4 The UN Human Rights Enforcement Machinery 526
11.5 Regional Arrangements for the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights 532
11.6 Human Rights in Customary Law and as Rules of Jus Cogens 565
11.7 General Conclusions 566
12 SELF-DETERMINATION OF PEOPLES 573
12.1 Introduction 579
12.2 The Evolution of the Principle of Self-Determination：From a Political Concept to a Legal Concept 581
12.3 Decolonisation 588
12.4 The Limit of the Right to Self-Determination in the Colonial Context 591
12.5 The Extension of the Right to Self-Determination to People Living under Racist Regimes and Foreign Domination 592
12.6 The Right to Self-Determination as a Human Right 598
12.7 Self-Determination in the Post-Cold War Era 600
12.8 Conclusion 611
13 PEACEFUL SETTLEMENT OF DISPUTES BETWEEN STATES 615
13.1 Introduction 621
13.2 Diplomatic Means of Dispute Settlement between States 622
13.3 Arbitration 625
13.4 Mixed Claims Commissions 633
13.5 From the Permanent Court of International Justice （PCIJ） to the International Court of Justice （ICJ） 634
13.6 The ICJ： Functions， Composition and Organisation 637
13.7 The ICJ： Contentious Jurisdiction 641
13.8 The ICJ： Advisory Jurisdiction 672
13.9 Assessment of the ICJ 678
14 THE USE OF FORCE 687
14.1 Introduction 693
14.2 From the Right to Wage War to a Total Prohibition of War 694
14.3 The Prohibition of the Threat or Use of Force under the UN Charter 700
14.4 Exceptions to the Prohibition of the Threat or the Use of Force Based on Self-Defence 705
14.5 Collective Self-Defence 727
14.6 Controversial Uses of Force 729
15 COLLECTIVE SECURITY 745
15.1 Introduction 749
15.2 The Role of the UNSC in the Maintenance of International Peace and Security 753
15.3 The Role of the UNGA in the Maintenance of International Peace and Security： The Uniting for Peace Resolution 765
15.4 UN Peacekeeping and its Role in the Maintenance of International Peace and Security 770
15.5 Regional Arrangements and Agencies and their Role in the Maintenance of International Peace and Security 775
16 INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN LAW 783
16.1 Introduction 790
16.2 The Fundamental Principles of IHL 792
16.3 The Law Relating to the Conduct of Armed Conflicts （The Hague Law） 799
16.4 The Law Relating to the Protection of Victims of Armed Conflicts （The Geneva Law） 818
16.5 The Scope of Application and the Content of IHL 821
16.6 Breaches of IHL 844
16.7 The Role of the International Committee of the Red Cross （ICRC） 847
Glossary of Latin and Foreign Words and Maxims 855
Index 861