Ⅰ. Introduction 1
1. Outline and Scope of the Study 1
2. Defining Extraterritorial Application 7
3. The Law of Treaties Provides No General Answer 9
4. Basic Normative Framework 11
A. Jurisdiction clauses 11
B. Treaties with dedicated provisions on territorial application 13
C. Treaties with no provisions on territorial application 17
D. Concluding remarks 17
Ⅱ. From Compromise to Principle 19
1. A Threshold Criterion: Jurisdiction of a State, Not the Jurisdiction of a Court 19
2. Jurisdiction's Many Meanings 21
A. A spurious assumption 21
B. Jurisdiction in general international law 23
C. Jurisdiction: an absurdity 26
D. Jurisdiction: a homonym 30
E. Origins of jurisdiction clauses 34
F. Jurisdiction as power 39
3. State Jurisdiction Is Not State Responsibility 41
A. Loizidou: a test of attribution? 41
B. The first possible reading of Loizidou 42
C. The second possible reading of Loizidou 46
D. Attribution as a prerequisite for jurisdiction 51
4. Conclusion 52
Ⅲ. Policy Behind the Rule 54
1. Introduction 54
2. Universality and Human Dignity 55
3. Sovereignty and Territory 58
4. Sovereignty and Comity to the Territorial State 61
A. The sovereignty of Iraq in Al-Skeini 61
B. Canadian case law on sovereignty and comity 62
C. Comity as a distraction from effectiveness 65
5. Sovereignty, Citizenship, and the Social Contract 67
A. US case law on citizenship and extraterritoriality 67
B. The Guantanamo cases 72
C. Evaluating citizenship as a ground for extraterritoriality of individual rights 76
6. Relativism and Regionalism 83
A. Relativism and regionalism before the European Court 83
B. Relativism and regionalism in Al-Skeini 86
C. Relativism and regionalism evaluated: another face of effectiveness 91
7. Preventing Arbitrary Distinctions and Results and the Abuse of Law 96
8. Political Questions, Deference, and Institutional Incompetence 98
9. Effectiveness and Norm Conflict 103
10. Between Universality and Effectiveness 106
A. What does and what should matter 106
B. Effectiveness: flexibility 110
C. Effectiveness: impact 113
D. Effectiveness: regime integrity 114
E. Effectivness: clarity and predictability 115
F. Conclusion 116
Ⅳ. Models of Extraterritorial Application 118
1. Basic Models and Scenarios 118
A. Introduction 118
B. Extraterritorial deprivation of life 120
1. Killing in a territory within the state's control 120
2. Killing in a territory outside the state's control 120
3. Killing in a territory outside the state's control, but within the territory of a state party to the human rights treaty in question (espace juriclique) 121
4. Killing by third parties 121
C. Extraterritorial deprivation of liberty 122
1. Detention in a territory within the state's control 122
2. Detention in a place within the state's control 122
3. Detention on a ship or aircraft 123
4. Killing, torture, or ill-treatment during extraterritorial detention 123
D. Complicity scenarios 124
1. Territorial complicity 124
2. Extraterritorial complicity 124
3. Distinguishing between primary and secondary rule complicity 124
E. Extraterritorial law enforcement 126
F. Transboundary environmental harm 126
2. The Spatial Model: Jurisdiction as Control of an Area 127
A. Introduction 127
B. What is an'area'? 129
C. What amounts to 'control'? 135
1. Lawful or unlawful 135
2. Effective overall control over territory 136
3. Relationship with the threshold of belligerent occupation 141
4. Does control need to be exclusive? 147
D. Control over places and objects 151
1. A general theory? 151
2. Embassies and consulates 154
3. Ships and aircraft 160
E. Outlook 170
3. The Personal Model: Jurisdiction as Authority and Control over Individuals 173
A. Introduction 173
B. Case law 175
1. UN treaty bodies 175
2. Inter-American institutions 180
3. Early Strasbourg case law 181
4. Post-Bankovic Strasbourg case law 183
C. What amounts to authority and control? Can the personal model be limited? 187
1. Physical custody 187
2. Control over an individual in a specific place, or by specific agents 193
3. Nationality and membership in the armed forces 193
4. Exercise of a legal power 199
D. The personal model collapses 207
4. A Third Model: Territorial Jurisdiction and the Distinction Between Positive and Negative Obligations 209
A. Universality unbound 209
B. Textual interpretation and implicit negative obligations 212
C. Prophylactic and procedural positive obligations 215
D. Reconciling universality and effectiveness 219
5. The Special Problem of the ICCPR 222
6. Treaties Without Jurisdiction Clauses 227
Ⅴ. Norm Conflicts, International Humanitarian Law, and Human Rights Law 229
1. Introduction 229
2. A Relationship between Norms, not between Regimes 232
3. Norm Conflict Avoidance and Norm Conflict Resolution 236
A. Defining norm conflict 236
B. Methods of norm conflict resolution 237
C. Methods of norm conflict avoidance 239
D. Unresolvable norm conflicts 242
4. Is Lex Specialis a Rule of Conflict Avoidance or of Conflict Resolution? 249
5. Areas of Potentially Unresolvable Norm Conflict 252
A. Preventive detention and judicial review of detention 252
B. Necessity in targeting 254
C. (Transformative) occupation 257
6. Concluding Remarks 259
General Conclusion 262
Bibliography 266
Index 275