Introduction 1
1 Before DNA: Genetic Markers 5
Immunogenetics of the ABO Group 6
Is the Theory Generally Accepted? 7
More Immunogenetic Markers 12
The Thin-Gel-Multisystem Controversy 13
2 Trial by Mathematics 20
Inclusions versus Exclusions 20
The Admissibility of Percentages and Probabilities 24
3 The Dawn of DNA Typing 36
Genes, Chromosomes, DNA, and Sex 37
From Protein Polymorphisms to RestrictionFragment Length Polymorphisms 40
Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms 43
Multilocus Variable Number Tandem Repeat Probes 48
The Probability of Individuality 52
Forensic Applications 54
DNA Evidence circa 1986 57
4 The Emergence of VNTR Profiling 58
Into the Courtroom 60
The Double Murder and the Handyman 65
The Pretrial Hearing 66
The Aftermath 71
Castro's Progeny 74
5 The Intensifying Debate over Probability and Population Genetics 79
The Aversion to Numbers 80
The Validity of the Numbers 84
The Match Window 84
Allele Frequencies 87
The Basic Product Rule for Combining Allele Frequencies 89
Threats to Independence 91
The Lewontin-Hartl Article 95
The National Research Council Speaks 98
6 The Initial Reaction to the 1992 NRC Report 105
The Initial Reception of the NRC Report in the Courts 106
Hitting the Ceiling 112
Evaluating the Population-Genetics Debate 114
7 Ending the Debate over Population Genetics 132
Lobbying the Academy 133
The NR C Speaks Again 137
Simpson Meets His Match 140
Boodles and Louder 154
The Second NRC Report in the Courts 158
8 Moving Back to Errors and Relatives 161
Proficiency Testing and Error Rates 162
The Evil Twin and Other Relatives 170
9 Moving on to Short Tandem Repeat Loci 178
The Polymerase Chain Reaction 179
Early PCR-Based Discrete-Allele Systems 180
More PCR-Based Systems: Short Tandem Repeats and Alphabet Soup 187
10 Transcending Race and Unscrambling Mixed Stains 192
Deracializing DNA Statistics 192
Unscrambling Mixtures 197
11 Outside the Nucleus: Mitochondrial DNA 213
The Ordeal of Clara and Emmanuel Rojas 215
The Ghost of Corleone 217
The Last Tsar 218
12 Stray Hairs 226
Ware's Hair 227
Saving Simpson's Scalp 230
A Connecticut Yankee in Court 232
An Experiment in Delaware 238
13 Learning from DNA 243
Payment 246
Selection and Cultivation 248
Exposure 250
Neutral Expertise 252
Other Reforms 256
Appendix: Timeline of Selected Developments in or Affecting Forensic Genetics 261
Notes 265
References 293
Cases and Statutes 319
Index 325