1 Legal Philosophy:The Most Important Controversies 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Legal Philosophy 4
1.2.1 What is Law? 4
1.2.2 The Natural-Law Doctrine 9
1.2.3 Descriptive Legal Positivism and Its Critics 15
1.3 Law Between Power and Morality 30
1.4 Conceptual Framework and Brief Overview of the Subsequent Chapters 34
2 Antiquity and the Middle Ages 43
2.1 Introduction to Greek Philosophy 43
2.2 Pre-Socratics 48
2.3 The Sophists 50
2.3.1 Scepticism and Relativism 50
2.3.2 Law as Convention 52
2.4 Plato 54
2.4.1 Introduction 54
2.4.2 State Doctrine 55
2.4.3 Rationalistic Theory of Knowledge and Ontology 56
2.4.4 Moral Perfectionism 59
2.4.5 Commentary 63
2.5 Aristotle 65
2.5.1 Ontology 66
2.5.2 Ethics 68
2.5.3 Political Philosophy and Legal Philosophy 71
2.5.4 Commentary 73
2.6 The Stoics 74
2.7 The Middle Ages 78
2.7.1 Introduction 78
2.7.2 Thomas Aquinas 82
2.7.3 End of the Middle Ages 87
2.8 Conclusion 89
3 The Commencement of the Modern Age 91
3.1 Introduction 91
3.2 From God's Sovereignty to the People's Sovereignty:Calvinism 96
3.3 Realism and Relativism:The Renaissance 100
3.4 The Break with Tradition:The Scientific Revolution 103
3.5 Modern Natural Law:Hugo Grotius 107
4 Hobbes,Locke,and Spinoza 111
4.1 Hobbes 111
4.1.1 Life 111
4.1.2 Man and World 112
4.1.3 The State of Nature 114
4.1.4 Social Morality 116
4.1.5 The State 118
4.1.6 The Social Contract 120
4.1.7 Law and Morality 121
4.1.8 Commentary 123
4.2 Locke 124
4.2.1 Life 124
4.2.2 Law in the State of Nature 125
4.2.3 The Formation of the Political Community 127
4.2.4 Limits of Power 128
4.2.5 Grounds and Limits of Reliable Knowledge 131
4.3 Spinoza 134
4.3.1 Life 134
4.3.2 Pluralism and Tolerance 134
4.3.3 Commentary 135
4.4 Conclusion:Hobbes and Locke 136
5 Eighteenth-Century French Enlightenment 139
5.1 Enlightenment,Freedom,Equality and Fraternity 139
5.1.1 Enlightenment Through Science 139
5.1.2 Legal Philosophy of the Enlightenment 140
5.2 The Liberal Enlightenment:Montesquieu's Separation of Powers 142
5.2.1 Montesquieu 142
5.2.2 The Spirit of Laws 143
5.2.3 Separation of Powers 144
5.2.4 Montesquieu as Moderate Liberal 146
5.2.5 Commentary 147
5.3 Enlightenment of Criminal Law 148
5.3.1 Monopoly of Power and Criminal Law 148
5.3.2 Cesare Beccaria 149
5.3.3 Criminal Law According to Beccaria 150
5.3.4 Instrumental Criminal Law and Individual Justice 152
5.3.5 Separation of Powers and Codification 154
5.4 Natural Law,Enlightened Science and Cruel Arbitrariness 155
5.5 Rousseau:Nostalgia for Natural Security 157
5.5.1 Rousseau's Life and Work 157
5.5.2 Feeling Versus Reason:The 'Natural' and the 'Civilized' Person 158
5.5.3 Politics,Law and State 159
5.5.4 Commentary 162
5.6 French Revolution:The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen 163
5.7 Continuation of the Enlightenment 166
6 The Synthesis of Kant 169
6.1 Introduction 169
6.2 Theory of Knowledge:Synthesis of Empiricism and Rationalism 174
6.2.1 The Influence of the Empiricism of Hume 174
6.2.2 Kant's Epistemology 176
6.3 Ethics 179
6.3.1 The Categorical Imperative 179
6.3.2 Kant's Deontological Ethics Versus Utilitarianism 184
6.4 Legal Philosophy 185
6.4.1 Law and Ethics 185
6.4.2 Social Contract 187
6.4.3 International Law 188
6.5 The Separation of 'Is' and 'Ought' and a Narrow Social Morality 189
6.6 Commentary 191
7 Nineteenth Century 195
7.1 Introduction 195
7.1.1 General Developments 195
7.1.2 Liberalism and Utilitarianism 200
7.1.3 German Historical School 202
7.1.4 Hegel 204
7.1.5 Marx 207
7.1.6 Nietzsche 208
7.2 Utilitarianism 209
7.2.1 Introduction 209
7.2.2 Jeremy Bentham 210
7.2.3 John Stuart Mill 211
7.2.4 Mill's Utilitarianism 212
7.2.5 Mill's Liberalism 215
7.2.6 Commentary 216
7.3 Hegel 218
7.3.1 Introduction 218
7.3.2 Hegel and Liberalism 218
7.3.3 Legal Philosophy as Philosophy of the Spirit 220
7.3.4 Law,Morality and Ethics 222
7.3.5 State and Society 223
7.3.6 Constitutional Law 224
7.3.7 Commentary 227
7.4 Marx 230
7.4.1 Introduction 230
7.4.2 Historical Materialism 231
7.4.3 Class Struggle 235
7.4.4 Marx,Liberal Human Rights and the State 238
7.4.5 Marx and Freedom 240
7.4.6 Marx's Normative Views 241
7.4.7 Commentary 249
7.5 Nietzsche 252
7.5.1 Introduction 252
7.5.2 Beyond Good and Evil 254
7.5.3 The Nietzschean State:Artist-Tyrants 256
7.5.4 Commentary 258
8 Twentieth Century:1900-1945 261
8.1 Introduction 261
8.1.1 General Developments 261
8.1.2 Developments in Philosophy and Related Fields 264
8.2 Psychoanalysis 273
8.2.1 Introduction 273
8.2.2 The Mental Apparatus 275
8.2.3 The Functioning of the Mind 277
8.2.4 The Origin of Law,Morality and Religion 280
8.2.5 Commentary 284
8.3 Logical Positivism 286
8.3.1 Scientific Progress 286
8.3.2 Ethics 289
8.3.3 Law 294
8.4 Critical Rationalism 297
8.4.1 Popper 297
8.4.2 The Open Society and Its Enemies 299
8.4.3 Commentary 300
8.5 Hermeneutics 301
8.5.1 The Practical Meaning of Understanding 301
8.5.2 Hermeneutics and Legal Science 305
8.5.3 Commentary 308
9 Twentieth Century:1945-2000 311
9.1 Introduction 311
9.1.1 Political and Philosophical Developments 311
9.1.2 Communitarianism 313
9.1.3 Philosophy of Language and Cultural Relativism 315
9.1.4 Postmodernism 316
9.1.5 Critical Theory 318
9.1.6 Neo-Aristotelian Natural Law 319
9.1.7 Deconstruction 322
9.1.8 Intersubjectivity and Politics 324
9.2 The Philosophy of Ordinary Language 325
9.2.1 Linguistic Philosophy 325
9.2.2 Linguistic Philosophy and Ethical Relativism 327
9.3 Critical Theory 331
9.3.1 Neo-Marxism 331
9.3.2 The Interest in Emancipation 332
9.3.3 The Ideal Communication Society 334
9.3.4 Legal Philosophy 337
9.4 Commentary:Intersubjectivity and Universal Ethics 340
9.5 Deconstruction 342
9.5.1 Psychoanalysis Radicalised 342
9.5.2 Legal Philosophy 346
9.5.3 Commentary 349
10 Conclusion:Law,Order and Freedom 353
10.1 Introduction 353
10.2 Cognitivist and Non-cognitivist Views on Law,Order and Freedom 355
10.3 Complications 358
10.4 A Liberal View of the Relation Between Law,Order and Freedom 360
10.5 An Example:Rawls's Theory of Justice 364
10.6 A Liberal Law of Peoples 367
10.7 Criticism of Political Liberalism 368
10.8 Liberalism:A Universal Morality? 371
10.9 Answers to the Questions of Section 1.1 374
10.10 Conclusion 377
Bibliography 379
Name Index 385