Part OneGeometrical Optics 3
1Properties of Light 3
1.1The Rectilinear Propagation of Light 5
1.2 The Speed of Light 6
1.3 The Speed of Light in Stationary Matter 8
1.4 The Refractive Index 9
1.5Optical Path 10
1.6Laws of Reflection and Refraction 11
1.7Graphical Construction for Refraction 13
1.8 The Principle of Reversibility 14
1.9Fermat’s Principle 14
1.10 Color Dispersion 18
2Plane Surfaces and Prisms 24
2.1Parallel Beam 24
2.2 The Critical Angle and Total Reflection 25
2.3Plane-Parallel Plate 28
2.4Refraction by a Prism 29
2.5Minimum Deviation 30
2.6Thin Prisms 32
2.7 Combinations of Thin Prisms 32
2.8 Graphical Method of Ray Tracing 33
2.9Direct-Vision Prisms 34
2.10Reflection of Divergent Rays 36
2.11Refraction of Divergent Rays 36
2.12Images Formed by Paraxial Rays 38
2.13Fiber Optics 40
3Spherical Surfaces 44
3.1Focal Points and Focal Lengths 45
3.2 Image Formation 46
3.3Virtual Images 47
3.4 Conjugate Points and Planes 47
3.5 Convention of Signs 50
3.6 Graphical Constructions. The Parallei-Ray Method 50
3.7 Oblique-Ray Methoos 52
3.8 Magnification 54
3.9 Reduced Vergence 54
3.10 Derivation of the Gaussian Formula 56
3.11Nomography 57
4Thin Lenses 60
4.1Focal Points and Focal Lengths 60
4.2 Image Formation 62
4.3 Conjugate Points and Planes 62
4.4 The Parallel-Ray Method 62
4.5 The Oblique-Ray Method 63
4.6Use of the Lens Formula 64
4.7Lateral Magnification 64
4.8 Virtual Images 65
4.9Lens Makers’ Formula 67
4.10Thin-Lens Combinations 68
4.11Object Space and Image Space 70
4.12 The Power of a Thin Lens 70
4.13Thin Lenses in Contact 71
4.14Derivation of the Lens Formula 72
4.15Derivation of the Lens Makers’ Formula 73
5Thick Lenses 78
5.1Two Spherical Surfaces 78
5.2 The Parallel-Ray Method 79
5.3Focal Points and Principal Points 81
5.4 Conjugate Relations 82
5.5 The Oblique-Ray Method 82
5.6 General Thick-Lens Formulas 84
5.7 Special Thick Lenses 88
5.8 Nodal Points and Optical Center 88
5.9 Other Cardinal Points 90
5.10 Thin-Lens Combination as a Thick Lens 91
5.11Thick-Lens Combinations 93
5.12 Nodal Slide 93
6Spherical Mirrors 98
6.1Focal Point and Focal Length 98
6.2 Graphical Constructions 99
6.3 Mirror Formulas 102
6.4 Power of Mirrors 104
6.5 Thick Mirrors 105
6.6 Thick-Mirror Formulas 107
6.7 Other Thick Mirrors 109
6.8 Spherical Aberration 109
6.9Astigmatism 111
7The Effects of Stops 115
7.1Field Stop and Aperture Stop 115
7.2 Entrance and Exit Pupils 116
7.3Chief Ray 117
7.4 Front Stop 117
7.5 Stop between Two Lenses 118
7.6 Two Lenses with No Stop 120
7.7 Determination of the Aperture Stop 121
7.8Pield of View 122
7.9Field of a Plane Mirror 122
7.10Field of a Convex Mirror 124
7.11Field of a Positive Lens 124
8Ray Tracing 130
8.1Oblique Rays 130
8.2 Graphical Method for Ray Tracing 131
8.3Ray-tracing Formulas 134
8.4 Sample Ray-tracing Calculations 135
9Lens Aberrations 149
9.1Expansion of the Sine＆First-Order Theory 150
9.2 Third-Order Theory of Aberrations 151
9.3 Spherical Aberration of a Single Surface 152
9.4 Spherical Aberration of a Thin Lens 153
9.5Results of Third-Order Theory 157
9.6Fifth-Order Spherical Aberration 160
9.7Coma 162
9.8Aplanatic Points of a Spherical Surface 166
9.9Astigmatism 167
9.10Curvature of Field 170
9.11Distortion 171
9.12 The Sine Theorem and Abbe’s Sine Condition 173
9.13 Chromatic Aberration 176
9.14 Separated Doublet 182
10Optical Instruments 188
10.1The Human Eye 188
10.2 Cameras and Photographic Objectives 191
10.3Speed of Lenses 191
10.4 Meniscus Lenses 193
10.5 Symmetrical Lenses 193
10.6 Triplet Anastigmats 194
10.7 Telephoto Lenses 195
10.8Magnifiers 195
10.9 Types of Magnifiers 198
10.10 Spectacle Lenses 198
10.11Microscopes 200
10.12Microscope Objectives 201
10.13 Astronomical Telescopes 202
10.14 Oculars and Eyepieces 205
10.15Huygens Eyepiece 205
10.16Ramsden Eyepiece 206
10.17Kellner-or Achromatized Ramsden Eyepiece 206
10.18 Special Eyepieces 206
10.19 Prism Binoculars 207
10.20 The Kellner-Schmidt Optical System 208
10.21Concentric Optical Systems 209
Part Two Wave Optics 214
11Vibrations and Waves 214
11.1Simple Harmonic Motion 216
11.2 The Theory of Simple Harmonic Motion 217
11.3 Stretching of a Coiled Spring 218
11.4 Vibrating Spring 221
11.5Transverse Waves 223
11.6 Sine Waves 224
11.7Phase Angles 225
11.8Phase Velocity and Wave Velocity 228
11.9Amplitude and Intensity 229
11.10Frequency and Wavelength 232
11.11Wave Packets 235
12The Superposition of Waves 238
12.1Addition of Simple Harmonic Motions along the Same Line 239
12.2 Vector Addition of Amplitudes 240
12.3 Superposition of Two Wave Trains of the Same Frequency 242
12.4Superposition of Many Waves with Random Phases 244
12.5 Complex Waves 246
12.6Fourier Analysis 248
12.7 Group Velocity 250
12.8 Graphical Relation between Wave and Group Velocity 252
12.9 Addition of Simple Harmonic Motions at Right Angles 253
13Interference of Two Beams of Light 259
13.1Huygens’ Principle 260
13.2 Young’s Experiment 261
13.3Interference Fringes from a Double Source 263
13.4 Intensity Distribution in the Fringe System 265
13.5Fresnel’s Biprism 266
13.6Other Apparatus Depending on Division of the Wave Front 268
13.7 Coherent Sources 270
13.8Division of Amplitude.Michelson Interferometer 271
13.9Circular Fringes 273
13.10Localized Fringes 275
13.11White-Light Fringes 276
13.12 Visibility of the Fringes 277
13.13 Interferometric Measurements of Length 279
13.14Twyman and Green Interferometer 281
13.15Index of Refraction by Interference Methods 282
14Interference Involving Multiple Reflections 286
14.1 Reflection from a Plane-Parallel Film 288
14.2Fringes of Equal Inclination 291
14.3 Interference in the Transmitted Light 292
14.4 Fringes of Equal Thickness 293
14.5 Newton’s Rings 294
14.6Nonreflecting Films 295
14.7 Sharpness of the Fringes 297
14.8 Method of Complex Amplitudes 299
14.9 Derivation of the Intensity Function 300
14.10Fabry-Perot Interferometer 301
14.11Brewster’s Fringes 302
14.12 Chromatic Resolving Power 303
14.13 Comparison of Wavelengths with the Interferometer 305
14.14 Study of Hyperfine Structure and of Line Shape 308
14.15 Other Interference Spectroscopes 310
14.16Channeled Spectra.Interference Filter 311
15Fraunhofer Diffraction by a Single Opening 315
15.1Fresnel and Fraunhofer Diffraction 315
15.2Diffraction by a Single Slit 316
15.3Further Investigation of the Single-Slit Diffraction Pattern 319
15.4 Graphical Treatment of Amplitudes.The Vibration Curve 322
15.5Rectangular Aperture 324
15.6Resolving Power with a Rectangular Aperture 325
15.7 Chromatic Resolving Power of a Prism 327
15.8 Circular Aperture 329
15.9Resolving Power of a Telescope 330
15.10Resolving Power of a Microscope 332
15.11Diffraction Patterns with Sound and Microwaves 334
16The Double Slit 338
16.1Qualitative Aspects of the Pattern 338
16.2Derivation of the Equation for the Intensity 339
16.3 Comparison of the Single-Slit and Double-Slit Patterns 341
16.4Distinction between Interference and Diffraction 341
16.5 Position of the Maxima and Minima.Missing Orders 342
16.6 Vibration Curve 346
16.7 Effect of Finite Width of Source Slit 347
16.8Michelson’s Stellar Interferometer 349
16.9 Correlation Interferometer 351
16.10 Wide-Angle Interference 352
17The Diffraction Grating 355
17.1Effect of Increasing the Number of Slits 355
17.2Intensity Distribution from an Ideal Grating 357
17.3 Principal Maxima 358
17.4Minima and Secondary Maxima 358
17.5Formation of Spectra by a Grating 359
17.6Dispersion 362
17.7 Overlapping of Orders 362
17.8 Width of the Principal Maxima 363
17.9Resolving Power 364
17.10Vibration Curve 365
17.11Production of Ruled Gratings 368
17.12 Ghosts 370
17.13Control of the Intensity Distribution among Orders 370
17.14Measurement of Wavelength with the Grating 373
17.15Concave Grating 373
17.16Grating Spectrographs 374
18Fresnel Diffraction 378
18.1Shadows 378
18.2 Fresnel’s Half-Period Zones 380
18.3Diffraction by.a Circular Aperture 383
18.4Diffraction by a Circular Obstacle 384
18.5 Zone Plate 385
18.6 Vibration Curve for Circular Division of the Wave Front 386
18.7 Apertures and Obstacles with Straight Edges 388
18.8 Strip Division of the Wave Front 389
18.9 Vibration Curve for Strip Division.Cornu’s Spiral 389
18.10Fresnel’s Integrals 390
18.11The Straight Edge 393
18.12 Rectilinear Propagation of Light 395
18.13 Single Slit 397
18.14Use of Fresnel’s Integrals in Solving Diffraction Problems 399
18.15Diffraction by an Opaque Strip 400
19The Speed of Light 403
19.1Romer’s Method 403
19.2 Bradley’s Method.The Aberration of Light 405
19.3Michelson’s Experiments 406
19.4Measurements in a Vacuum 408
19.5 Kerr-Cell Method 408
19.6 Speed of Radio Waves 410
19.7 Ratio of the Electrical Units 411
19.8 The Speed of Light in Stationary Matter 411
19.9 Speed of Light in Moving Matter 412
19.10Fresnel’s Dragging Coefficient 413
19.11Airy’s Experiment 414
19.12 Effect of Motion of the Observer 414
19.13 The Michelson-Morley Experiment 416
19.14 Principle of Relativity 418
19.15 The Three First-Order Relativity Effects 419
20The Electromagnetic Character of Light 423
20.1Transverse Nature of Light Vibrations 424
20.2Maxwell’s Equations for a Vacuum 424
20.3Displacement Current 425
20.4 The Equations for Plane Electromagnetic Waves 427
20.5 Pictorial Representation of an Electromagnetic Wave 428
20.6Light Vector in an Electromagnetic Wave 429
20.7 Energy and Intensity of the Electromagnetic Wave 429
20.8Radiation from an Accelerated Charge 430
20.9Radiation From a Charge in Periodic Motion 432
20.10Hertz’s Verification of the Existence of Electromagnetic Waves 432
20.11Speed of Electromagnetic Waves in Free Space 434
20.12 Cerenkov Radiation 434
21Sources of Light and Their Spectra 438
21.1Classification of Sources 438
21.2 Solids at High Temperature 439
21.3Metallic Arcs 439
21.4 Bunsen Flame 442
21.5 Spark 442
21.6 Vacuum Tube 443
21.7 Classification of Spectra 445
21.8 Emittance and Absorptance 445
21.9 Continuous Spectra 447
21.10 Line Spectra 450
21.11Series of Spectral Lines 452
21.12 Band Spectra 458
22 Absorption and Scattering 457
22.1General and Selective Abs？rption 457
22.2Distinction between Absorption and Scattering 458
22.3 Absorption by Solids and Liquids 459
22.4 Absorption by Gases 461
22.5Resonance and Fluorescence of Gases 461
22.6 Fluorescence of Solids and Liquids 464
22.7 Selective Reflection.Residual Rays 464
22.8 Theory of the Connection between Absorption and Reflection 465
22.9 Scattering by Small Particles 466
22.10 Molecular Scattering 468
22.11Raman Effect 469
22.12 Theory of Scattering 470
22.13 Scattering and Refractive Index 471
23Dispersion 474
23.1Dispersion of a Prism 474
23.2 Normal Dispersion 475
23.3 Cauchy’s Equation 479
23.4 Anomalous Dispersion 479
23.5 Sellmeier’s Equation 482
23.6 Effect of Absorption on Dispersion 485
23.7 Wave and Group Velocity in the Medium 487
23.8 The Complete Dispersion Curve of a Substance 488
23.9 The Electromagnetic Equations for Transparent Media 489
23.10 Theory of Dispersion 491
23.11Nature of the Vibrating Particles and Frictional Forces 494
24The Polarization of Light 497
24.1Polarization by Reflection 498
24.2Representation of the Vibrations in Light 499
24.3 Polarizing Angle and Brewster’s Law 500
24.4 Polarization by a Pile of Plates 501
24.5Law of Malus 503
24.6Polarization by Dichroic Crystals 504
24.7 Double Refraction 505
24.8 Optic Axis 507
24.9 Principal Sections and Principal Planes 507
24.10 Polarization by Double Refraction 508
24.11Nicol Prism 510
24.12Parallel and Crossed Polarizers 511
24.13Refraction by Calcite Prisms 511
24.14 Rochon and Wollaston Prisms 513
24.15 Scattering of Light and the Blue Sky 514
24.16 The Red Sunset 515
24.17 Polarization by Scattering 516
24.18 The Optical Properties of Gemstones 518
25Reflection 523
25.1Reflection from Dielectrics 523
25.2 Intensities of the Transmitted Light 526
25.3 Internal Reflection 527
25.4 Phase Changes on Reflection 527
25.5Reflection of Plane-polarized Light from Dielectrics 529
25.6 Elliptically Polarized Light by Internal Reflection 531
25.7 Penetration into the Rare Medium 533
25.8 Metallic Reflection 534
25.9 Optical Constants of Metals 536
25.10 Description of the Light Reflected from Metals 538
25.11Measurement of the Principal Angle of Incidence and Principal Azimuth 540
25.12 Wiener’s Experiments 541
26 Double Refraction 544
26.1Wave Surfaces for Uniaxial Crystals 544
26.2 Propagation of Plane Waves in Uniaxial Crystals 546
26.3 Plane Waves at Oblique Incidence 549
26.4 Direction of the Vibrations 550
26.5 Indices of Refraction for Uniaxial Crystals 551
26.6Wave Surfaces in Biaxial Crystals 553
26.7 Internal Conical Refraction 556
26.8External Conical Refraction 557
26.9 Theory of Double Refraction 559
27Interference of Polarized Light 564
27.1Elliptically and Circularly Polarized Light 564
27.2 Quarter- and Half-Wave Plates 567
27.3Crystal Plates between Crossed Polarizers 568
27.4 Babinet Compensator 569
27.5Analysis of Polarized Light 571
27.6 Interference with White Light 572
27.7 Polarizing Monochromatic Filter 575
27.8 Applications of Interference in Parallel Light 576
27.9Interference in Highly Convergent Light 576
28Optical Activity and Modern Wave Optics 581
28.1Rotation of the Plane of Polarization 581
28.2Rotary Dispersion 582
28.3Fresnel’s Explanation of Rotation 584
28.4Double Refraction in Optically Active Crystals 586
28.5 Shape of the Wave Surfaces in Quartz 588
28.6Fresnel’s Multiple Prism 589
28.7 Cornu Prism 590
28.8Vibration Forms and Intensities in Active Crystals 591
28.9 Theory of Optical Activity 593
28.10 Rotation in Liquids 594
28.11Modern Wave Optics 596
28.12 Spatial Filtering 597
28.13Phase-Contrast Microscope 602
28.14 Schlieren Optics 604
Part Three Quantum Optics 611
29Light Quanta and Their Origin 611
29.1The Bohr Atom 612
29.2Energy Levels 616
29.3 Bohr-Stoner Scheme for Building Up Atoms 617
29.4 Elliptical Orbits， or Penetrating Orbitals 619
29.5Wave Mechanics 622
29.6 The Spectrum of Sodium 625
29.7Resonance Radiation 626
29.8 Metastable States 629
29.9 Optical Pumping 630
30Lasers 632
30.1Stimulated Emission 633
30.2 Laser Design 634
30.3 The Ruby Laser 635
30.4 The Helium-Neon Gas Laser 636
30.5 Concave Mirrors and Brewster’s Windows 642
30.6 The Carbon Dioxide Laser 643
30.7Resonant Cavities 646
30.8Coherence Length 650
30.9Frequency Doubling 652
30.10 Other Lasers 653
30.11Laser Safety 653
30.12 The Speckle Effect 653
30.13Laser Applications 654
31Holography 658
31.1The Basic Principles of Holography 659
31.2 Viewing a Hologram 664
31.3 The Thick， or Volume， Hologram 665
31.4Multiplex Holograms 669
31.5White-Light-Reflection Holograms 670
31.6 Other Holograms 672
31.7 Student Laboratory Holography 675
32Magneto-Optics and Electro-Optics 678
32.1Zeeman Effect 679
32.2 Inverse Zeeman Effect 685
32.3Faraday Effect 686
32.4Voigt Effect， or Magnetic Double Refraction 688
32.5 Cotton-Mouton Effect 690
32.6Kerr Magneto-optic Effect 691
32.7 Stark Effect 691
32.8Inverse Stark Effect 692
32.9 Electric Double Refraction 693
32.10Kerr Electro-optic Effect 693
32.11Pockels Electro-optic Effect 695
33The Dual Nature of Light 698
33.1Shortcomings of the Wave Theory 699
33.2Evidence for Light Quanta 700
33.3Energy， Momentum， and Velocity of Photons 703
33.4Development of Quantum Mechanics 704
33.5 Principle of Indeterminacy 705
33.6Diffraction by a Slit 705
33.7 Complementarity 707
33.8Double Slit 707
33.9Determination of Position with a Microscope 709
33.10Use of a Shutter 710
33.11 Interpretation of the Dual Character of Light 711
33.12 Realms of Applicability of Waves and Photons 712
Appendixes 715
Ⅰ The Physical Constants 716
Ⅱ Electron Subshells 717
Ⅲ Refractive Indices and Dispersions for Optical Glasses 720
Ⅳ Refractive Indices and Dispersions of Optical Crystals 721
Ⅴ The Most Intense Fraunhofer Lines 722
Ⅵ Abbreviated Number System 723
Ⅶ Significant Figures 724
Index 727