Chapter Ⅰ The Emergence and Foundation of Contemporary International Criminal Proceedings 1
1 Functions and Origins of International Criminal Proceedings 1
1.1 Origins and Sources 1
1.2 The Doctrine of Stare Decisis and Judicial Precedent within International Criminal Proceedings 2
1.3 Stare Decisis between Case Law from International and Internationalized Criminal Courts 4
1.4 Conclusions 6
2 Functions of International Criminal Proceedings 6
3 The Adversarial Nature of International Criminal Trials 6
3.1 ICTY-ICTR Adversarial Elements 6
3.2 ICC Adversarial-Inquisitorial Traits 7
3.3 Contemporary International Criminal Proceedings: Consequences of a Shift to Civil Law Traits? 8
4 Legal-Political Dilemmas of the Law of International Criminal Proceedings 9
5 The Law of International Criminal Proceedings: A Sui Generis System? 10
6 Effects of International Criminal Proceedings on National Criminal Jurisdictions 13
Chapter Ⅱ The Influence of International Human Rights Law on International Criminal Proceedings 15
1 Introduction 15
2 The Direct Effect of Human Rights on the Development of International Criminal Proceedings 15
3 Practical Implications of the Direct Effect of Human Rights on International Criminal Proceedings 19
4 Material Differentiation between National Criminal and International Criminal Proceedings as to the Applicable Scope of Human Rights 21
Chapter Ⅲ Towards a System of General Principles and Methodology of International Criminal Proceedings 23
1 Introduction 23
2 The Influence of the Jurisprudence of International Criminal Tribunals on the Development of General Principles of International Criminal Proceedings 24
3 The Promulgation of Fundamental Principles of International Criminal Proceedings: Procedural Jus Cogens Norms 24
3.1 Introduction 24
3.2 The Principle of Presumption Innocentiae within International Criminal Proceedings 25
3.2.1 General Observations 25
3.2.2 Derivative Rights 28
3.2.3 Extension under the ICC Statute? 29
3.3 The Right to be Informed of the Charges Within International Criminal Proceedings 30
3.4 The Right to Challenge the Lawfulness of the Arrest or Detention 32
3.5 The Right to Have Access to the Case File during Detention on Remand 36
3.6 The Principle of Equality of Arms Including Equal Access to Documents and Witnesses as well as Having Adequate Facilities and Time to Prepare the Defence 37
3.6.1 Equality of Arms from the Perspective of the ECHR 37
3.6.2 Equality of Arms from the Perspective of International Tribunals 38
3.6.3 Practical Implications of Procedural Equality within International Criminal Proceedings 40
3.6.4 Equality of Arms as to Financial Resources within International Criminal Trials 42
3.6.5 Equality of Arms as it Applies to Non-Indigent or Partially-Indigent Accused 49
3.7 The Principle that Examination of Witnesses should be Conducted on an Equal Footing 55
3.8 The Right of an Accused to Freely Choose Counsel, and to Represent Himself before an International Criminal Tribunal 59
3.8.1 The Right to Freely Choose Counsel 59
3.8.2 The Right to Dismiss Counsel 64
3.8.3 The Right to Represent Oneself 66
3.9 The Principle of Fair and Impartial Proceedings without Undue Delay 80
3.10 The Right Not to be Held Criminally Responsible in Violation of the Principle of Legality (Nullem Crimen Sine Lege) 83
3.11 International Criminal Trials in Presence and in Absentia of the Accused 85
3.11.1 Trials in Absentia: Principles according to European Court of Human Rights 85
3.11.2 Trials in Absentia: Principles set forth by International Tribunals 86
4 Conclusion 89
Chapter Ⅳ Fundamentals on the Transposition of National Criminal (Procedural) Laws onto International Criminal Proceedings 91
1 The Transfer of Jurisdiction from National to International Criminal Proceedings 91
2 Principles to Regulate the Interrelationship between National and International Criminal Jurisdiction 91
3 Principles to Ascertain International or Internationalized Criminal Jurisdiction 93
4 Limitations on the Transposition of National Criminal Laws onto International Criminal Proceedings 93
5 Jurisdictional Immunities From International Criminal Proceedings Based on National Law: The SCSL Challenges 96
6 Conclusion 99
Chapter Ⅴ Fundamentals of International Criminal Investigations and Prosecution 101
1 Introduction 101
2 The Nature of the Type of Problem(s) Arising from Prosecutorial Powers to Initiate International Criminal Proceedings 103
3 The Prosecutorial Context for the Commencement of International Criminal Proceedings 105
3.1 The Exercise of Prosecutorial Powers before the ICTY and ICTR: Interpretative Parameters 105
3.2 Commencing International Criminal Proceedings before the ICC: A New Prosecutorial Era? 110
3.2.1 The ICC Prosecutorial System 110
3.2.2 Rethinking Prosecutorial Criteria to Initiate ICC Investigation or Prosecution 114
3.3 The Changing Discretionary Role of Prosecutors within the System of Internationalized Criminal Courts: From Discretion to Legal Political Authority 116
3.4 Criminal Investigations before the Special Court for Sierra Leone 119
3.4.1 Introduction 119
3.4.2 Specific Investigatory Powers of the Prosecutor of the Special Court for Sierra Leone 119
3.4.3 Counterbalancing Rights of the Suspect during an Investigation by the Prosecutor of the Special Court for Sierra Leone 121
4 International Legal Instruments to Supervise Prosecutorial Discretionary Powers: the Doctrine of Abuse of Powers 122
4.1 The Need for Supervisory Mechanisms 122
4.2 The Abuse of Process Doctrine Applied to Prosecutorial Discretion 123
5 Reform of the Legal Political and Ethical Basis of International Criminal Prosecutions: Some Recommendations 128
5.1 The Need for Normative Constitutionalization and Review of Prosecutorial Decision Making 128
5.2 Towards a Special Review Procedure? 129
5.3 Determining Legal-Political Criteria for International Criminal Prosecutions 130
5.4 Conclusions 132
Chapter Ⅵ International Criminal Pre-Trial Proceedings 135
1 Introduction 135
2 The Nature and Function of (Preliminary) Motions within International Criminal Proceedings 136
3 The International Criminal Law Standards on Provisional Release 137
3.1 Characterization and Nature of Bail 137
3.2 The International Human Rights Status of Provisional Release 138
3.3 Provisional Release before the ICTY and ICTR 139
3.3.1 Introduction 139
3.3.2 The Development of the Provisional Release System through ICTY Case Law 140
3.4 Provisional Release before the SCSL 144
3.5 Provisional Release before the ICC 147
3.6 Distinction between International Criminal Courts and ECHR as to Provisional Release 150
3.7 Influx of Human Rights on the Provisional Release Mechanism before International and Internationalized Courts 153
4 The Role and Nature of Indictments within International Criminal Proceedings 154
4.1 Function and Purpose of International Criminal Indictments 154
4.2 Requirements for International Criminal Indictments: Practical Guidelines 156
5 Principles Pertaining to Disclosure of Evidence within International Criminal Proceedings 159
5.1 Introduction: Nature and Purpose of Disclosure 159
5.2 Prosecution's Disclosure Obligations within International Criminal Proceedings 160
5.3 Defence Disclosure Obligations within International Criminal Proceedings 164
5.4 Disclosure of Witness Rewards within International Criminal Proceedings 165
5.5 Disclosure of Prosecution's Records of Witness Interviews 170
5.6 Disclosure of Preparatory Meetings Between Prosecution and Witnesses 172
5.7 Disclosure Obligations Pursuant to Human Rights Provisions 173
6 National Security Interests and its Disclosure within International Criminal Proceedings 173
6.1 Introduction 173
6.2 International Criminal Proceedings to Protect National Security Interests 174
6.3 Disclosure and National Security Interests before the ICC 181
Chapter Ⅶ Evidentiary Rules and Principles within International Criminal Proceedings 183
1 The Hybrid Nature of International Criminal Evidentiary Rules 183
2 General Evidentiary Rules and Principles Applicable to International Criminal Proceedings 184
3 Witness Testimony within International Criminal Proceedings: Principles and Practice 185
4 Hearsay Evidence within International Criminal Proceedings 187
4.1 The Nature and Complexity of Rules Governing Hearsay Evidence 187
4.2 Admissibility of Hearsay within International Criminal Proceedings 188
4.3 Exclusion of Hearsay Evidence based on Reliability Criteria Within International Criminal Proceedings 190
4.4 Reviewing Hearsay Evidence within Contemporary International Criminal Proceedings: Future Developments 191
4.5 The Admission if Prior Inconsistent Statements as Substantive Evidence: An Example of New Developments at the ICTY 193
4.6 Concurrence of Hearsay and Prior Inconsistent Statements 195
5 Corroborating Evidence within International Criminal Proceedings 196
6 Admissibility of "Circumstantial Evidence" within International Criminal Proceedings 197
7 Principles as to Protection of Witnesses and Victims within International Criminal Proceedings 198
7.1 Introduction: The (Protective) Position of Witnesses and Victims within International Criminal Proceedings 198
7.2 Main Principles of Protective Measures within International Criminal Proceedings 198
7.3 Stages and Types of Protective Measures within International Criminal Proceedings 199
7.3.1 Protective Measures and Procedural Stages 199
7.3.2 Types of Protective Measures 200
7.4 Protective Measures and Different Categories of Witnesses 201
7.5 Conclusions 202
8 Anonymous Witnesses within International Criminal Proceedings 203
8.1 The Approach of the ECHR: Foundation for International Criminal Trials 203
8.2 Anonymous Witness Evidence within International Criminal Proceedings 205
8.3 Conclusions and Practical Reflections on ICTY Case Law Referring to Anonymous Witnesses 208
8.4 ICTR Approach Regarding Anonymous Witnesses 210
8.5 ICC Approach Regarding Anonymous Witnesses 210
8.6 Admissibility of other Indirect Documentary Evidence: Diaries and Personal Notes 211
8.7 Judicial Boundaries of Expert Testimony Within International Criminal Proceedings 212
9 Other Evidentiary Instruments within International Criminal Proceedings 213
9.1 Written Evidence in International Criminal Proceedings 213
9.2 The Doctrine of Judicial Notice within International Criminal Proceedings: Mechanisms to Introduce Facts 218
9.3 Indirect Evidentiary Mechanisms within International Criminal Proceedings 221
9.4 The Admissibility of Dossiers into Evidence before International Criminal Tribunals 223
9.5 The Fundamental Role of Expert Witnesses Evidence within International Criminal Proceedings 225
9.5.1 Introduction: Function, Role and Definition of Expert Evidence 225
9.5.2 Litigation Purposes of the Involvement of Expert Witnesses within International Criminal Proceedings 226
9.5.3 Admissibility of Expert Evidence within International Criminal Proceedings 227
10 The Admissibility and Evidentiary Value of Intelligence Information within International Criminal Trials 230
10.1 The Position of International Criminal Tribunals Vis-a-Vis "Intelligence Information" 231
10.2 The Position of the ECHR Vis-a-Vis "Intelligence Information" 238
Chapter Ⅷ International Criminal Trial Proceedings 243
1 Introduction: Regulation by Rules of Procedure and Evidence 243
2 Procedural Aspects of Case Presentation and Presentation of Evidence within International Criminal Proceedings 244
2.1 Introduction: the Function of Case Presentation and Presentation of Evidence 244
2.2 International Procedural Principles of Presentation of Evidence 245
2.3 Purpose and Relevance of the Opening Statement within International Criminal Proceedings 246
2.4 Nature and Purpose of Cross-Examination within International Criminal Proceedings 247
2.4.1 Fundamental Basis of Cross-Examination 247
2.4.2 Functions and Purposes of Cross-Examination within International Criminal Proceedings 248
2.4.3 Modalities and Scope of Cross-Examination within International Criminal Proceedings 248
2.4.4 Implications for International Criminal Proceedings 249
2.5 Admissibility of Rebuttal and Rejoinder Evidence? 250
2.6 Conclusions: Towards a Flexible System of Presentation of Evidence 251
3 The International Procedural Instrument of Entering of a Judgment of Acquittal 252
4 Procedural Aspects of the Finality of International Criminal Proceedings: The Closing Arguments 257
4.1 General Remarks 257
4.2 Functioning Essentials and Purposes of Closing Argument within International Criminal Proceedings 257
5 Specific Procedures within International Criminal Proceedings: Guilty Plea and Plea Agreement Procedures 259
5.1 International Criminal Law Conditions for Guilty Pleas 259
5.2 International Criminal Plea Agreement Procedures 260
5.3 Human Rights Adjudicatory Framework on Plea Agreements: ECHR Case Law 267
Chapter IX International Criminal Sentencing and Enforcement Proceedings 271
1 Introduction: The Position of Sentencing (Enforcement) within International Criminal Proceedings 271
2 The Legal-Political and Philosophical Parameters of International Criminal Sentences 271
3 The Position of Life Imprisonment and Death Penalty within International Criminal Sentencing 274
4 Specify Sentencing Factors Derived from the Practice of International and Internationalized Criminal Court 276
4.1 General Parameters 276
4.2 Specific Parameters: Aggravating and Mitigating Factors 277
4.2.1 Aggravating Circumstances 277
4.2.2 Mitigating Circumstances 279
5 The Principle of Equity as a Sentencing Consideration within International Trials? 281
6 International Criminal Sentencing Procedures 282
7 Enforcement of Sentences within International Criminal Proceedings 282
7.1 Enforcement Principles 282
7.2 Principles of Supervision of International Imprisonment Sentences 284
7.3 The Binding Nature of Imprisonment Sentences within International Criminal Proceedings: Reduction and Commutation of Sentences? 285
8 Conclusions 287
Chapter Ⅹ International Criminal Appeal Proceedings 289
1 Introduction: Appeal as Derivative of Human Rights? 289
2 The Nature of the Appellate System before International and Internationalized Criminal Courts 290
2.1 Common and Civil Law Features 290
2.2 The Contemporary Interlocutory Appeals System within International Criminal Proceedings 291
2.3 International Criminal Appeals against Judgments 292
2.4 Grounds of Appeals before International Criminal Tribunals 293
2.5 Appeals for Purposes of Jurisprudential Developments 295
2.6 The International Criminal Law Principles for Admission of Fresh Evidence in Appeal 296
2.7 A Refined ICTY-Standard of Review on Appeal 299
Chapter Ⅺ International Criminal Review Proceedings 301
1 Introduction: The Nature of Miscarriages of Justice and Redressing Them 301
2 The Susceptibility of International Criminal Proceedings for Miscarriages of Justice 301
3 The Review System before International Criminal Tribunals 302
4 Towards a Uniform System of Review Principles within International Criminal Proceedings 305
5 Financial Compensation for Wrongfully Detained or Convicted Persons within International Criminal Proceedings 306
6 Witnesses Identification within International or Internal Armed Conflict 307
Chapter Ⅻ State Cooperation within the Law of International Criminal Proceedings 309
1 Introduction: State Cooperation as the Cornerstone of Proceedings Before International Criminal Tribunals 309
2 The Existing Framework and Traits on State Cooperation Before the Ad Hoc Tribunals 309
2.1 Introduction 309
2.2 Key Principles of State Cooperation According to the ICTY Case Law 311
3 The State Cooperation System within Internationalized or Mixed Criminal Courts: The Experiences before the Special Court for Sierra Leone 314
3.1 Introduction 314
3.2 Cooperation with States 315
3.3 Application of the Blaskic Criteria by the Special Court in Sierra Leone 319
4 Conclusions: State Cooperation and Equality of Arms 322
Chapter ⅩⅢ Special Characteristics and Methodology of Contemporary International Criminal Proceedings 325
1 Introduction 325
2 The identification of General and Specific Features of International Criminal Proceedings 325
3 The Identification of General Methodological Traits within International Criminal Proceedings 327
3.1 Methods of Interpretation of International Criminal Proceedings 327
Chapter ⅩⅣ The Future of International Criminal Proceedings and Standardization of its Practice 329
1 The Jurisprudence of the International and Internationalized Criminal Courts as Quasi-Legislative Source: Compliance with the Doctrine of Separation of Powers? 329
1.1 Introduction: Rules of Procedure and Evidence as Quasi-Legislation 329
2 The Process of the Establishment of the SCSL 330
2.1 Legal Basis of the Special Court 330
2.2 Letter from the President of Sierra Leone to the President of the United Nations Security Council 331
2.3 UN Security Council Resolution 1315 331
2.4 Report of the Secretary-General on the Establishment of a Special Court for Sierra Leone 333
2.5 Agreement on the Special Court for Sierra Leone 333
3 Jurisprudence of the SCSL on the Ratione Materiae Jurisdiction 334
3.1 Introduction 334
3.2 Specific Crimes under the Statute of the SCSL 336
3.3 Assessment of Article 4 c: The Recruitment and Use of Child Soldiers 336
3.4 Assessment of Article 5: Abuse of Girls and Wanton Destruction of Property 337
3.5 Jurisprudential Developments within the SCSL on Two Specific Crimes: Forced Marriage and Child Recruitment 338
3.5.1 The SCSL Trial Chamber Decision of May 6,2004, in Prosecutor v. Brima/Kamara/Kanu on the Prosecution Request for Leave to Amend the Indictment 339
3.5.2 The Appeals Chamber Judgment of May 31,2004, in Prosecutor v. Norman on the Preliminary Motion based on Lack of Jurisdiction (Child Recruitment) 340
4 Conclusions: The Doctrine of Separation of Powers at the International Criminal Law Level? 343
Biography 345
Table of cases 347
Table of Treaties and Documents 351
Index 353