Part Ⅰ-General 3
1 Introduction 3
1.1 Opening Remarks and Objectives 3
1.2 Overview and Target Audience 8
2 Germane Considerations 11
2.1 Introductory Remarks 11
2.2 Meaning of'Individually Criminally Responsible' 12
2.3 Objectives of Individual Criminal Responsibility for Core International Crimes 15
2.4 Sources of, and Judicial Precedent in, International Criminal Law 27
2.4.1 Introductory Remarks 27
2.4.2 General Sources of International Criminal Law 29
2.4.2.1 Treaties 31
2.4.2.2 Custom 32
2.4.2.3 General Principles of Law Recognised by Civilised Nations 34
2.4.2.4 Judicial Decisions 35
2.4.2.5 Teachings of the Most Highly Qualified Publicists 42
2.4.3 Sources of International Criminal Law Relevant to Adjudication Before the ICC and the Ad Hoc International Criminal Tribunals 43
2.4.3.1 ICC 44
2.4.3.2 Ad Hoc International Criminal Tribunals 47
2.4.3.3 Significance of the ICC, ICTY and ICTR Statutes other than as a Binding Source of Law 47
2.4.4 Evaluation of other Potential Sources of International Criminal Law 48
2.4.4.1 Nuremberg Principles 48
2.4.4.2 Draft Code of Crimes Against the Peace and Security of Mankind 48
2.4.4.3 CCL 10 49
2.4.4.4 Resolutions of the UN General Assembly and UN Security Council 50
2.4.4.5 Reports of the International Law Commission 50
2.4.5 Judicial Precedent and the Ad Hoc International Criminal Tribunals, the ICC and the SCSL 50
2.4.5.1 Judicial Precedent and the Ad Hoc International Criminal Tribunals and the SCSL 51
2.4.5.2 Judicial Precedent and the ICC 55
2.4.5.3 Conclusion 56
2.4.6 Concluding Remarks 56
2.5 Definition of Core International Crimes 56
2.5.1 Introductory Remarks 56
2.5.2 Definition of 'Core International Crimes' 57
2.5.3 Core International Crimes for which a Person can be Individually Criminally Responsible 61
2.5.3.1 Genocide 62
2.5.3.2 War Crimes 64
2.5.3.3 Crimes Against Humanity 72
2.6 Evolution of Individual Criminal Responsibility for Core International Crimes 85
2.6.1 Introductory Remarks 85
2.6.2 Evolution of the Concept of Individual Criminal Responsibility for Core International Crimes in International Law 86
2.6.2.1 Pre-Nuremberg and Tokyo 87
2.6.2.2 Nuremberg and Tokyo up to the 1990s 98
2.6.2.3 Post Nuremberg and Tokyo 105
2.6.2.4 ICTY and Beyond 113
2.6.2.5 Conclusion 123
Part Ⅱ-Selected Pertinent Issues 127
3 The Joint Criminal Enterprise Doctrine: A "monster theory of liability" or a legitimate and satisfactory tool in the prosecution of the perpertrators of core international crimes? 127
3.1 Introduction and Overview 127
3.2 Terminology 130
3.3 History 132
3.4 The JCED Before the Ad Hoc Tribunals and as Contained in Other Instruments 136
3.4.1 ICTY 136
3.4.1.1 Tadic Appeals Judgment 137
3.4.1.2 Application of the Principles Identified in the Tadic Appeals Judgment 148
3.4.2 ICTR 163
3.4.3 ICC 167
3.4.3.1 Observations to Article 25(3)(d), ICC Statute 168
3.4.3.2 Future Employment of the JCED Before the ICC 177
3.4.4 Draft Code of Crimes Against the Peace and Security of Mankind 178
3.4.5 Special Court for Sierra Leone 178
3.4.6 Supreme Iraqi Criminal Tribunal 180
3.4.7 US Military Commission 180
3.5 Distinguishing the JCE Concept from Other Modes of Liability/Crimes 182
3.5.1 Relevance of Making the Distinction 182
3.5.2 Aiding and Abetting 183
3.5.3 Conspiracy 184
3.5.4 Membership of a Criminal Organisation 188
3.6 Issues Arising in Relation to the JCED from a Review of the JCED Jurisprudence 193
3.6.1 Is The JCE Mode of Liability a Form of Principal or Accomplice Liability? 193
3.6.1.1 Significance of Classification 194
3.6.1.2 Jurisprudence Supporting the Position that JCE Liability is a Form of Principal Liability 198
3.6.1.3 Jurisprudence Supporting the Position that JCE Liability is a Form of Accomplice Liability 202
3.6.1.4 Jurisprudence Supporting the Position that JCE Liability is Both a Form of Principal and Accomplice Liability 203
3.6.1.5 Employment of Terminology 211
3.6.2 Genocide and JCE Category 3 212
3.6.2.1 Case Law 213
3.6.2.2 Criticism of the Brdanin Appeals Decision 216
3.6.3 The Pleading of the JCE Mode of Liability in Indictments 218
3.6.3.1 Relevant Provisions of the ICTY Statute, ICTY Rules and Rules Arising From the Case Law of the ICTY,in Relation to the Form of Indictments 219
3.6.3.2 Blanket Pleading of All Modes of Responsibility Under Article 7(1)ICTY Statute 221
3.6.3.3 Revealing the Nature of the Alleged Individual Criminal Responsibility of the Accused in the Prpsecution's Pre-Trial Brief 227
3.6.3.4 JCE Specifically Charged, but not Specified which JCE Category is Being Charged 229
3.6.3.5 Permissibility of Charging Under Alternative Categories of JCE Liability 233
3.6.3.6 Concluding Remarks 234
3.7 Critique of the JCED 234
3.7.1 Pertinent Issues 235
3.7.1.1 Rationale of the JCED 235
3.7.1.2 Undermining the Principle of Individual Criminal Responsibility in Favour of Collective Responsibility 236
3.7.1.3 Infringement of the Nullum Crimen Sine Lege Principle 238
3.7.1.4 JCE Scenarios Already Covered by Aiding and Abetting? 242
3.7.1.5 Principal/Accomplice Debate 245
3.7.1.6 Genocide and JCE Category 3 247
3.7.1.7 Pleading of the JCED in Indictments 248
3.7.1.8 Significant Level of Participation of the Accused in the JCE 250
3.7.1.9 The Application of the JCED to the 'Little Fish' 253
3.7.1.10 The ICC and the JCE Mode of Liability 255
3.7.2 Conclusion 258
4 The Defining Criteria of International Criminal Courts for the Purposes of Lifting State Official Immunity 263
4.1 Introduction 263
4.2 Scope, Aim and Overview 267
4.3 Terminology 270
4.4 Yerodia Case 271
4.5 Defining Criteria of an International Criminal Judicial Body 273
4.5.1 Introduction 273
4.5.2 Defining Criteria of an International Judicial Body 273
4.5.3 Jurisprudence and Literature on the Defining Criteria of an International Criminal Judicial Body 277
4.5.3.1 Amicus Curiae Brief of Professor Philippe Sands 278
4.5.3.2 Amicus Curiae Brief of Professor Diane F.Orentlicher 281
4.5.3.3 SCSL Appeals Chamber's Taylor Decision 283
4.5.4 Defining Criteria of an International Criminal Judicial Body 284
4.5.4.1 Introduction 284
4.5.4.2 Legal Basis of an International Criminal Judicial Body 285
4.5.4.3 An International Criminal Judicial Body may not be Part of the Judiciary of One Single State 317
4.5.4.4 An International Criminal Judicial Body Shall Apply International Criminal Law 317
4.5.4.5 The Jurisdiction Ratione Materiae and Ratione Personae of the International Criminal Judicial Body Must be International 318
4.5.4.6 The Decisions of the International Criminal Judicial Body are Binding 320
4.5.4.7 The Judiciary of an International Criminal Judicial Body is Impartial, Independent and International 320
4.5.4.8 The Judiciary must not have been Appointed Ad Hoc by the Parties 321
4.5.4.9 Adjudication According to a Pre-Determined Set of Rules of Procedure and Evidence, which cannot be Modified by the Parties 321
4.5.4.10 Relationship with the Domestic Courts of a state:Concurrent/Primacy or Complementarity Jurisdiction 322
4.5.4.11 Independent Financing of the International Criminal Judicial Body 323
4.5.4.12 Fulfilment of the Criteria Associated with Classical International Organisations 324
4.5.4.13 Existence of Chapter VII Powers 324
4.5.4.14 Intention of the Parties to Establish an International Criminal Judicial Body 326
4.5.4.15 Designation of a Judicial Body as International 327
4.5.4.16 Express Lifting of Immunity from Prosecution for Core International Crimes 327
4.5.4.17 Does an International Criminal Judicial Body have to be Permanent? 328
4.5.4.18 Jurisdiction Between States and the Equality of the Parties 328
4.5.4.19 The International Criminal Judicial Body shall have Jurisdiction only in Cases in which the Parties, Either in General, or by Special Agreement have Accepted the Jurisdiction of the Tribunal 330
4.5.4.20 Other Potential Criteria/Indicia of an International Criminal Judicial Body 330
4.5.5 Summary of the Fundamental and Indicative Criteria of an International Criminal Judicial Body 332
4.6 Analysis of Hybrid Criminal Judicial Bodies 334
4.6.1 Introduction 334
4.6.2 Analysis 334
4.6.2.1 Special Court for Sierra Leone 334
4.6.2.2 Extraordinary Chambers of the Courts of Cambodia 339
4.6.2.3 Special Panels for Serious Crimes of the District Court of Dili(East Timor) 341
4.6.2.4 'Regulation 64' Panels of Kosovo 343
4.6.2.5 War Crimes Chamber of the State Court of Bosnia and Herzeggovina 345
4.6.2.6 Supreme Iraqi Criminal Tribunal 347
4.6.2.7 Special Tribunal for Lebanon 350
4.6.3 Conclusion 354
4.7 Final Note 354
4.8 Conclusion 357
5 Individual Criminal Responsibility for Terrorism as a Crime Against Humanity: An Appropriate Expansive Adaptation of the Subject Matter of Core International Crimes? 359
5.1 Introduction and Overview 359
5.2 Clarification 361
5.3 Individual Criminal Responsibility for Terrorism: Defining the Categories of Criminalisation 363
5.4 Individual Criminal Responsibility for Terrorism, as a Distinct Crime. 363
5.5 Individual Criminal Responsibility for Certain Manifestations of Terrorism 375
5.6 Individual Criminal Responsibility for Terrorism, as a War Crime 375
5.7 Individual Criminal Responsibility for Terrorism, as Genocide 376
5.8 Individual Criminal Responsibility for Terrorism, as a Crime Against Humanity 376
5.8.1 History of the Crime of Terrorism and the ICC Statute 379
5.8.1.1 1994 Draft Definition of the International Law Commission 379
5.8.1.2 1996 Preparatory Committee Session 381
5.8.1.3 1997 Definition of the Preparatory Committee's Working Group 382
5.8.1.4 1998 Rome Diplomatic Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court 383
5.8.1.5 End Result 384
5.8.2 Terrorism, as a Crime Against Humanity in Accordance with the ICC Statute and/or under General International Law? 385
5.8.2.1 Literal Interpretation of Article 7 of the ICC Statute 385
5.8.2.2 Indicia that Militate Against the Inclusion of Terrorism Perpetrated by Individuals Within the Scope of Article 7 of the ICC Statute 389
5.8.2.3 Indicia that Acts of Terrorism Fall Outside the Scope of Crimes Against Humanity in General International Law 391
5.8.3 Conclusion 392
5.9 Other Issues Relating to the Prosecution of Terrorism Before the ICC 396
5.9.1 Additional Obstacles to the Prosecution of Terrorism Before the ICC 397
5.9.1.1 Jurisdictional Obstacles 397
5.9.1.2 Obstacle of Complementarity 398
5.9.1.3 Other Obstacles 399
5.9.2 Should Terrorism Fall Within the Jurisdiction of the ICC? 400
5.9.3 Conclusion 401
5.10 Appropriate Expansive Adaptation of Core International Crimes? 402
6 Summary 405
6.1 Introduction 405
6.2 Summary 405
6.3 Significance of Conclusions 411
Bibliography 413
Jurisprudence 439
Index 453