Chapter 1 The History of the Law of the Sea 1
1.Mare Liberum versus Mare Clausum 1
(1) The Sovereignty of the Seas 2
(2) The Freedom of the Seas 9
(3) The Intellectual Basis of the Controversy 10
(4) Imperium and Dominium 14
2.High Seas and Territorial Waters 18
3.The Codifications 20
4.The Status of the Geneva Conventions 22
5.The Third Law of the Sea Conference 24
Chapter 2 The General Principles of the Law of the Sea 31
1.Unilateral Action 31
2.The Custom of the Sea and Unilateral Acts 33
3.The Methodology of the Law of the Sea 37
4.The Significance of Protest in the Law of the Sea 38
5.The Normative Effect of the Law of the Sea Conventions 44
6.The Relationship between Treaties and Customary Law 46
7.The Preceptive and Concessive Roles of International Law in the Investiture of Jurisdictional Zones 49
8.The Relationship of International Law and Constitutional Law in the Investiture of Jurisdictional Zones 53
9.The Concept of Reasonable Use 57
Chapter 3 The Juridical Nature of the Territorial Sea 60
A. International Law 60
1.The Property Theory of the Territorial Sea 60
2.The ‘Police' Theory of the Territorial Sea 61
3.The Competence Theory of the Territorial Sea 64
4.The Debates in the Institut de Droit International 67
5.The Servitude Theory of La Pradelle 68
6.The Consolidation of the Sovereignty Theory,1900—1925 71
(1) Doctrine 71
(2) Practice 74
7.The Codifications, 1924—1930 75
8.Article 1 of the Geneva Convention, 1958 80
9.National Legislation and Title to the Territorial Sea 82
B. Municipal Law 84
1.The Common Law 84
(1) The Crown's Prerogatives in the Sea 84
(a) The Proprietorial Nature of the Prerogatives 84
(b) The Continuity of the Crown's Prerogatives in the Sea. 88
(2) The Problem Raised by the Franconia Case.R. v. Keyn 93
(a) The Decision in the Case 93
(b) The Territorial Waters Jurisdiction Act, 1878 96
(c) The Controversy Concerning R. v. Keyn 98
(d) The Meaning of ‘Realm': the ratio decidendi of R. v. Keyn 100
(3) The Juridical Status of the Territorial Sea in Modern Common Law 106
(a) The Common Law 106
(b) Crown Grants of the Seabed of the Territorial Sea 109
(c) The Law of Scotland 111
(d) Colonial Maritime Boundaries 113
2.The Law of France 121
Chapter 4 The Extent of the Territorial Sea 124
1.The Cannon-Shot Rule 124
(1) The Sovereignty of the Seas 124
(2) The Origins of the Cannon-Shot Rule 125
(3) The Proliferation of the Cannon-Shot Rule 127
2.The Three-Mile Limit 129
(1) The Origins of the Three-Mile Limit 129
(2) The Three-Mile Rule in British and American Practice 131
(a) The United States Neutrality Act, 1794 131
(b) The Decisions of Lord Stowell 131
(c) The Negotiations between Great Britain and the United States, 1806 132
(d) The United States Decisions 133
(e) Negotiation of the Fisheries Convention, 1818 133
(3) The Doctrine on the Three-Mile Limit 134
(4) The Three-Mile Limit and Fishery Protection 135
(5) The Three-Mile Limit and Maritime Jurisdiction 138
(6) The Three-Mile Limit and the Colonial Extraterritoriality Rule 139
(a) The Origins of the Doctrine of Extraterritorial Incompetence 139
(b) Drafting Devices of Territoriality 144
(c) Judicial Theory of Extraterritoriality and the Three-Mile Limit 145
(d) Legislative Release from Extraterritorial Incompetence 146
(e) The ‘Nexus Doctrine' of Colonial Extraterritorial Competence and the Three-Mile Limit 147
3.The Twelve-Mile Limit 151
(1) The Genesis of the Twelve-Mile Limit 151
(2) The Struggle to Sustain the Three-Mile Limit 156
(3) The Codifications, 1924—1930 157
(a) The Private Codifications 157
(b) The Hague Codification Conference, 1930 158
(c) The Doctrine after the Hague Conference 159
(d) The Geneva Conferences 161
(e) The Third Law of the Sea Conference 164
4.Evaluation 165
(1) The Three-Mile Limit 165
(2) The Twelve-Mile Limit 165
(3) The Freedom to Determine Limits 166
(4) The Criterion of Evaluation 168
Chapter 5 The Measurement of the Territorial Sea 171
A. The Interior Limit 171
1.The Standard Baseline: Low Water 171
(1) The Choice of Tidal Level 173
(2) The Location of the Low-Water Datum 175
(3) Attempts at International Standardization of the Tidal Datum 176
(4) The Tidal Datum in Judicial Doctrine 179
2.Standard Base Points: Offshore Features 183
(1) The Choice of Tidal Datum 184
(2) The Customary Law Concerning Offshore Features 185
(a) The ‘Portico Doctrine' 185
(b) The ‘Portico Doctrine' in the Opinions of the Law Officers 186
(3) Drying Features in State Practice 191
(4) The Geneva Convention Rules on Offshore Features 193
(5) Measurement from Submerged Reefs and Atolls 195
(6) Measurement from Artificial Islands 196
(7) Measurement from Ice 197
(8) The Geneva Rules on Measurement from Offshore Features in Municipal Law: State Practice 198
3.The Non-Standard Baseline: Straight Lines 199
(1) The Anglo-Norwegian Fisheries Case, 1951 199
(a) The United Kingdom Case 201
(b) The Norwegian Case 201
(c) The Judgment 202
(d) Evaluation 205
(2) The Geneva Convention Rules on Baselines 206
(3) The Interrelationship of Concepts in the Geneva Convention 208
(a) Straight Baselines and Bays 209
(b) Straight Baselines and Islands 210
(c) Straight Baselines and Low-Tide Elevations 210
(d) Straight Baselines and Unstable Coastlines 211
(4) The Exceptional Character of the Straight Baseline Systems 211
(5) Evaluation of Straight Baseline Practice 214
(a) The General Direction of the Coast Principle 214
(b) The Economic Aspect 216
(c) The Plausibility of Article 4 217
(6) The Concessive Character of Article 4 218
4.Measurement of the Territorial Sea from Ports and Roadsteads 218
5.Measurement of the Territorial Sea from River Mouths 221
(1) Identification of River Mouths 221
(2) Article 13 of the Geneva Convention 224
(3) State Practice 225
(a) The Reciprocity Treaty Commission, 1855 225
(b) The River Plate 226
(c) The Sabine River 229
B. The Exterior Limit 230
1.Possible Methods of Measurement 230
2.Envelope of Arcs of Circles Method 231
(1) Genesis of the Method 231
(2) The Anglo-Norwegian Fisheries Case 232
(3) The International Law Commission 232
(4) Choice of Basepoints for Arcs of Circles 234
Chapter 6 Archipelagos 237
1.The Genesis of the Archipelago Concept 237
(1) The Hague Codification Conference 238
(2) Academic Proposals 239
2.The Effect of the Anglo-Norwegian Fisheries Case 242
3.Archipelago Proposals in the International Law Commission and at the Geneva Conference 244
4.State Practice in the Matter of Archipelagos 246
(1) Aaland Islands 246
(2) Faeroes Islands 246
(3) Galapagos Islands 247
(4) The Philippines 247
(5) Indonesia 249
(6) Hawaii and the Pacific Trust Territory 250
(7) Tonga 252
(8) Fiji 252
(9) Mauritius 252
(10) The Bahamas 253
(11) Micronesia 253
(12) Papua New Guinea 253
(13) Solomon Islands 253
5.Evaluation of Archipelago Claims 254
6.The Third Law of the Sea Conference 256
Chapter 7 Innocent Passage in the Territorial Sea 260
1.The Genesis of Innocent Passage 260
(1) Transitus Innoxium 260
(2) The Cannon-Shot Theory 261
2.The Modern Right of Innocent Passage 263
(1) Innocent Passage in English Law 263
(2) The Codifications 265
(a) The Institut de Droit International, 1894 265
(b) The Codifications, 1924—1930 266
(c) The Hague Codification Conference 266
(d) The International Law Commission 267
(e) The Geneva Convention 268
(f) The Third Law of the Sea Conference 269
(3) Evaluation 270
3.Innocent Passage of Warships 274
(1) Doctrinal History 274
(2) State Practice 277
(3) The Codifications 281
(a) The Codifications, 1924—1930 281
(b) The Hague Codification Conference, 1930 281
(4) The Question of Innocent Passage in the Corfu Channel Case 283
(a) The Security Council Debate 283
(b) The United Kingdom and Albanian Cases 284
(c) The Judgment 286
(5) The Geneva Convention 287
(a) The International Law Commission 287
(b) The Geneva Conference 288
(c) The Interpretation of the Geneva Convention 289
(6) The Third Law of the Sea Conference 292
(7) Mode of Passage of Warships 293
(a) Manoeuvres in the Territorial Sea 293
(b) Naval Aircraft in the Territorial Sea 294
(c) Submarines 294
4. Suspension of Innocent Passage 297
Chapter 8 Passage in International Straits 299
1. The Freedom of Passage through Straits 299
(1) The Codifications 301
(a) The Institut de Droit International, 1894—1912 301
(b) The International Law Association, 1895—1910 302
(c) The Hague Peace Conference, 1907 302
(d) The Codifications, 1924—29 303
(e) The Hague Codification Conference, 1930 303
(2) The Corfu Channel Case 306
(a) The Facts 306
(b) The Contentions of the Parties 308
(c) The Judgment 311
(3) Article 16(4) of the Geneva Convention 314
(4) The Customary Law on Straits 317
(a) State Practice: Passage through International Straits in Peacetime 317
(i) The Volkitsky Straits 317
(ii) The Chiung Chou Straits 318
(iii) The Sunda, Lombok, Balabac and San Bernadino Straits 318
(iv) The Malacca Straits 318
(v) The Straits of Gibraltar 321
(vi) The Straits of Magellan 322
(vii) The Turkish Straits 324
(b) State Practice: Passage Through International Straits in Wartime 324
(i) When the Coastal State is Neutral 324
(ii) When the Coastal State is Belligerent 326
(iii) Minelaying in Straits 326
(5) Evaluation 327
(6) The Third Law of the Sea Conference 328
2.The Mode of Passage through Straits 331
(1) The Normal Modes of Passage 331
(2) Overflight in Straits 333
Chapter 9 Internal Waters: Bay, Ports, Straits 338
A.Bays as Internal Waters 338
1.The Common Law 338
(1) The Genesis of the Concept of Bays 338
(a) The King's Chambers 339
(b) The Fauces Terrae Doctrine 341
(i) The Doctrine of Fitzherbert 341
(ii) The Doctrine of Coke 342
(iii) The Doctrine of Hale 342
(iv) The Coke-Hale Controversy 343
(v) The Significance of the Act 15 Richard Ⅱ 343
(vi) The Significance of the Controversy for the Distinction between Bays and Other Internal Waters 344
(vii) The Significance of the Fauces Terrae Doctrine for the Determination of the Baseline of the Territorial Sea 345
(2) The Nineteenth Century Revivals 345
(a) The Chambers Doctrine 345
(b) The Fauces Terrae Doctrine 346
2.The Concept of Bays in the Law of Nations 349
(1) The Relationship Between Common Law and International Law Doctrines 351
(a) The Linking of the Fauces Terrae Doctrine and the Concept of ‘Bay' in International Law 351
(b) The Linking of the Chambers Doctrine and the Concept of ‘Bay' in International Law 351
(2) The Closing Line as a Baseline 352
3.Bays in Customary Law 353
(1) The Headland Theory Generally 354
(2) The Practice of Great Britain 355
(a) The North Atlantic Coast ‘Bays' 355
(i) The Anglo-American Controversy 355
(ii) The North Atlantic Coast Fisheries Arbitration 359
(iii) The Bay of Fundy Question 361
(b) The Law Officers' Opinions 362
(c) The Moray Firth Controversy 364
(d) Evaluation of British Policy on the Extent of Bays 367
(e) Commonwealth Judicial Practice 367
(3) The Practice of the United States 371
(a) United States Policy 371
(b) United States Judicial Decisions 371
(c) The Alleganean Case, 1882 373
(4) The Practice of Other Countries 373
(a) France 373
(b) Italy 374
(c) Germany 374
(d) Spain and Portugal 374
(e) Soviet Union 375
(f) Sweden 375
(g) Denmark 376
(h) Latin America 376
(i) Morocco 377
(j) Middle East 377
(k) People's Republic of China 377
(l) Thailand 377
(5) The Codifications,1894—1930 378
(a) The Institut de Droit International,1894 378
(b) The Codifications of the 1920s 379
(c) The Hague Codification Conference,1930 379
(6) The Alternative Tests in Customary Law 381
(a) The Double Territorial Sea Limit 381
(b) The Ten-mile Limit 382
(c) Headland-to-Headland 384
B.Ports, Harbours, Roadsteads, and Creeks as Internal Waters 385
C.Straits as Internal Waters 385
Chapter 10 The Conventional Rules on Bays 389
1.The Genesis of the Geneva Rules 389
2.The Semi-Circle Test 390
(1) The Hague Codification Conference Proposal 390
(2) The Semi-Circle Test in the Geneva Convention,Art. 7 392
(3) The Semi-Circle Test and Landlocked Waters:Para. (2) 393
(4) Landlocked Waters that are not covered by theSemi-Circle Test 394
(5) The Comparative Areas of Semi-Circle and Bay:Para. (3) 395
(6) The ‘Natural Entrance Points': Para. (3) 396
(7) The Semi-Circle Test and the Low-Water Mark:Para. (3) 398
(8) The Semi-Circle Test and Compound Bays 399
(9) Islands at the Entrance 402
(10) Where there is only one Natural Entrance 406
3.The Twenty-four Mile Rule 407
(1) Calculation of the Terminal Points 407
(2) The Relationship of the Semi-Circle and Twenty-Four Mile Rules 408
4.The Terminal Points of the Closing Line 412
5.The Twenty-four Mile Rule and Fictitious Bays 414
6.Conclusion 416
Chapter 11 Historic Waters 417
1.The Status of the Problem of Historic Waters 417
(1) Historic Waters: Exception or Instance? 420
(2) Evaluation of the Question 422
(3) The Need for Historic Waters 424
(4) Relationship of Historic Waters to Prescription 426
2.The Supposed Elements of Historic Waters 427
(1) Effectiveness 427
(2) Effluxion of Time 432
(3) The Attitude of Foreign States 433
3.Vital Interests 435
Chapter 12 The Legal Regime of the Seabed 439
1.The Geomorphology of the Seabed 439
(1) The Revelations of the Earth Sciences 439
(2) Continental Margin and Abyssal Seabed 443
(a) Continental Margin 443
(i) Continental Shelf 443
(ii) Continental Slope 444
(iii) Continental Rise 444
(b) Abyssal Seabed 445
(3) Natural Prolongation 446
2.The Characterization of the Seabed 449
(1) Sedentary Fisheries 450
(2) Occupational Theories of the Continental Shelf 456
3.Deep-Sea Mining 457
(1) The Moratorium 459
(2) The Third Law of the Sea Conference 463
Chapter 13 The Continental Shelf 467
1.The Genesis of the Continental Shelf Doctrine 467
2.The Status of the Continental Shelf in Customary Law 475
3.The Juridical Nature of the Continental Shelf 476
(1) The Significance of ‘Sovereign Rights' 477
(2) The Juridical Nature of the Continental Shelf in the North Sea Continental Shelf Case and the Aegean Continental Shelf Case 480
(3) The Inherency of the Continental Shelf 482
(4) State Practice on the Juridical Nature of the Continental Shelf 484
(5) Military Uses of the Continental Shelf 488
4.The Legal Definition of the Continental Shelf 488
5.The Extent of the Continental Shelf 492
6.The Living Natural Resources of the Continental Shelf 498
7.The Security of Continental Shelf Installations 503
8.The Control of Production from the Continental Shelf of the United Kingdom 504
9.Revenue-Sharing in Respect of Exploitation beyond the 200-Mile Limit 507
10.Submarine Cables and Pipelines on the Continental Shelf 508
11.Cross-Boundary Application of Law to the Continental Shelf 509
Chapter 14 Fishery Zones 510
1.The Origins of the Right to Exclusive Fishery 510
(1) The Newfoundland Fisheries 511
(2) The Effect of the Cannon-Shot Rule 512
(3) The Anglo-American Fishing Negotiations,1783—1818 513
(4) The Absolute Situation in the Nineteenth Century 514
(a) The Channel Oyster Fishing Controversy 515
(b) Legislation 519
(c) The Behring Sea Fur Seals Arbitration 522
2.The Emerging Problem of Conservation 524
3.The Contemporary Ecological Problem 527
(1) The Principle of Abstention 528
(2) The Principle of Preference 529
4.The Concept of Adjacent Fishery Zones 530
(1) The Problem of Article 1 of the High Seas Convention 531
(2) Practice Respecting Twelve-Mile Zones 532
(3) The Phasing-out Agreements and Acquiescence 536
5.The Fisheries Jurisdiction Case 539
6.The Progression from Adjacent Fishery Zones to the EEZ. 542
7.The Western European Fishery System 543
(1) The London Convention, 1964 543
(2) Legislation 544
(3) The Fisheries Policy of the EEC 545
8.Regional Fisheries Agreements 548
(1) The North East Atlantic Fisheries Convention, 1959 548
(2) The North West Atlantic Fisheries Convention, 1949 549
(3) The Rio de Janeiro Convention, 1966 549
(4) The Rome Convention on the South East Atlantic, 1969 549
(5) The Antarctic Seals Convention, 1972 550
(6) The Baltic Fisheries Convention, 1973 550
9.The Draft Caracas Convention 550
Chapter 15 The Exclusive Economic Zone 553
1.The Genesis of the EEZ 553
(1) The Declaration of Santiago, 1951 553
(2) The Scientific Basis of the Claims 555
(3) Regional Development 556
(4) Latin American 200-Mile Claims 557
2.The Third Law of the Sea Conference 559
(1) The Preliminary Debates 559
(2) The Draft Caracas Convention 562
(a) The Concept of the Maximum Sustainable Yield 564
(b) The Concept of Allocation of the Surplus 565
3.Anadromous, Catadromous and Migratory Species 568
4.The Status of the EEZ 570
5.The Juridical Nature of the EEZ 575
6.The Relationship Between the Continental Shelf and the EEZ 579
7.Land-locked States and the EEZ 580
BIBLIOGRAPHY 582
TABLE OF CASES 608
INDEX OF CONVENTIONS AND INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS 616
INDEX OF AUTHORS CITED 619
GENERAL INDEX 626