1 Introduction 1
2 The problem of Identity 9
3 Equipment for Police Investigation in the Field 18
Equipment for Observation and Record 19
Equipment for Collection and Preservation of Evidence 22
4 The Collection of Physical Evidence 33
The Crime Scene 35
The Victim 43
The Suspect 46
Alternative Procedures 48
5 Casts and Replicas 50
Plaster Casts 50
Detail Casts 53
Wax Impressions 55
Thermoplastic Casting 55
Miscellaneous Casts 56
6 Fingerprints 59
Routine Fingerprinting 62
Latent Prints 63
Comparison of Prints 69
Computerization of Prints 72
7 Tracks and Trails 74
Shoeprints 74
Tire Treads 80
Comparison Standards 82
Miscellaneous Tracks 83
Trails 83
8 Photography 85
Photography and the Police 85
The Camera 86
Films 94
Illumination 96
Color vs Black-and-White Photographs 101
Motion Pictures vs Still Photographs 102
Developing Negatives and Prints 102
Small-Object Photography 103
Interpreting Photographs 104
General Considerations 105
9 Preliminary Examination of Microscopic Evidence 107
Sweepings 107
Sorting of Microscopic Evidence 108
Relation to Large Items of Evidence 110
Value of Microscopic Evidence 110
10 Clothing and Cloth 112
Special Items of Clothing 114
Cloth as Evidence 117
11 Fibers 124
Collection of Fibers 125
Fibers in Sweepings 126
Types of Textile Fibers 126
Uses and Limitations of Fiber Evidence 134
Unusual and Nontextile Fibers 134
12 Ropes, Cordage, and Packaging Material 136
Materials of Construction 137
Rope 137
Cords and Strings 138
Packaging Material 140
13 Hair 143
Morphology of Hair 144
Chemistry of Hair 151
Physical Properties of Hair 155
Collection of Questioned Hairs 157
Preliminary Examination of Hair 159
Human Hair vs Other Animal Hair 160
The Future of Human Hair as Evidence 165
14 Blood: Physical Investigation 167
Blood Distribution Patterns 173
Investigation of Blood in the Field 177
15 Blood: General Testing 182
Tests for the Presence of Blood 182
Tests for Species Origin of Blood 190
Washed Bloodstains 193
Age of Bloodstains 194
16 Blood: Individual Factors 196
Blood Groups 197
Lectins 203
Blood Protein Factors 203
17 Physiological Fluids Other than Blood 207
Semen 207
Urine 211
Perspiration 212
Saliva 212
Serum 212
Stains of Mixed and Miscellaneous Origin 213
Typing of Fluids 213
18 Cosmetics 215
Cosmetics as Evidence 215
Types of Cosmetics 216
Collection of Cosmetic Evidence 219
Examination of Evidence 220
19 Crystalline Evidence 222
The Nature and Properties of Crystals 223
X-Ray Diffraction 226
Miscellaneous Techniques 227
20 Special Chemical Evidence 229
Investigation 231
Collection of Evidence 232
Preliminary Examination 233
Solubility 234
Inorganic Substances 235
Organic Substances 236
Dyes and Pigments 237
21 Paint 240
The Physical Nature of Paint 241
The Chemical Nature of Paint 242
Examination of Paints 245
Paint Section 245
Identification of Paint Vehicle 247
Pigment Composition 248
Pigment Distribution 252
Miscellaneous Techniques 253
22 Glass 255
Variations in Glass 257
Strength of Glass 258
Investigation Involving Glass 260
Glass Fractures 261
Glass Identity from Physical Properties 267
Chemical and Spectrographic Analysis 270
23 Soil 273
Soil Formation 274
Variability of Soil 275
Collection of Soil Samples 277
Density Distribution of Soil 277
Chemical and Spectrographic Analysis 279
24 Metals 282
Broken Metal Objects 282
Metallographic Examination 285
Restoring Serial Numbers 286
Metal Failure 290
Quantitative Analysis 291
Spectrographic Analysis 292
Electrophoretic Analysis 293
Physical Properties 293
Chemical Properties 294
Metals in Fires 296
25 Plastics and Related Materials 298
The Nature of Plastics 298
Plastics as Physical Evidence 299
Examination of Plastics 300
Miscellaneous Similar Materials 301
Types of Plastics Commonly Found as Evidence 302
26 Vegetable Materials 310
Types of Botanical Evidence 311
27 Poisons 322
Types of Poisons 323
Investigation of Suspected Poisonings 329
Isolation and Identification of Poisons 332
28 Drugs 336
Natural Materials 338
Synthetic Materials 342
29 Alcohol 345
Physiological Aspects of Alcohol Ingestion 347
Calculation of Alcohol Levels 350
Investigation 351
30 Tool Marks 360
Types of Tool Marks 360
Investigation of Tool Marks 370
Comparison of Tool Marks 371
Investigation of Safe Burglaries 376
31 Firearms 379
Types of Firearms 381
Fundamentals of Firearms Examination 392
32 Vehicular Accidents 410
Causes of Vehicular Accidents 411
Types of Vehicular Accidents 413
Investigation 416
33 Vehicular Impact Evidence 424
Records 424
Point of Impact 427
Energy Dissipation in Accidents 430
Speed Calculations 432
Friction Coefficient (Drag Factor) 432
Brakes and Deceleration 434
Tire Marks 434
Accidents of Special Types 439
34 Physical Evidence from Fires 443
The Nature of the Action of Fire 444
Investigation of Fires 451
35 Physical Evidence from Explosions 458
Diffuse Explosions 458
Concentrated Explosions 461
Investigation of Explosions 463
Investigation of Explosive Devices 466
36 Documents 470
Types of Examination 470
Preliminary Examination 472
Exemplars 473
Copies and Photographs 477
Limitations of the Investigator 477
Physical and Chemical Examination 477
Handwriting Identification 491
Index 503