《Vacuum Technology》PDF下载

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  • 出版年份:2222
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  • 页数:532 页
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Chapter One The Nature of Vacuum 1

1.1 What Is Vacuum? 1

1.2 General Nature of a Gas 1

1.3 The Atmosphere 4

1.4 Units of Pressure 7

1.5 Decimals and Powers of Ten 9

1.6 Degrees of Vacuum 11

1.7 Mean Free Path of a Gas 11

1.8 Temperature Scales 13

1.9 Effect of Pressure on a Gas 15

1.10 Effect of Temperature on a Gas 17

1.11 The General Gas Law 19

1.12 Some Other Characteristics of Gases 21

Chapter Two Vacuum Systems 23

2.1 Elements of a Vacuum System 23

2.2 Some Types of Vacuum Systems 25

2.3 Quantity of Gas and Throughput 26

2.4 Comparison with an Electric Circuit 28

2.5 Comparison with Water Flow 30

2.6 Resistances Connected in Series 31

2.7 Resistances Connected in Parallel 34

2.8 The Use of Logarithms 36

2.9 Logarithmic Scales 37

2.10 Pumping Speed 41

2.11 Losses in Pumping Speed 42

Chapter Three Rotary Oil-Sealed Pumps 49

3.1 The Nature of Such Pumps 49

3.2 Pump Oils and the Oil System 50

3.3 Ultimate Pressure 52

3.4 Pumping Speed 53

3.5 Effect of Connecting Lines 56

3.6 Pump Size and Pump-Down Time—Method 1 62

3.7 Pump Size and Pump-Down Time—Method 2 65

3.8 Pump Size and Pump-Down Time—Method 3 67

3.9 Gas Handling Capacity of a Pump 69

3.10 Some General Rules 70

3.11 Setting Up Rotary Oil-Sealed Pumps 70

3.12 Starting Rotary Oil-Sealed Pumps 72

3.13 Stopping Rotary Oil-Sealed Pumps 72

3.14 Maintenance Problems 73

3.15 Use of a Nomograph 76

Chapter Four Vapor Pumps 77

4.1 General Nature of Vapor Pumps 77

4.2 Some Features of Diffusion Pumps 79

4.3 Some Features of Ejector Pumps 84

4.4 Mercury versus Oil 87

4.5 Pump Performance 89

4.6 Performance Characteristics of Diffusion Pumps 92

4.7 Performance Characteristics of Ejector Pumps 98

4.8 Migration of Pump Fluid 98

4.9 Backing Pump Requirements 100

4.10 Effect of Connecting Lines 101

4.11 Pump-Down Time for Vapor Pumps 103

4.12 Operating a Vapor Pump 104

4.13 Poor Operation or Failure of Vapor Pumps 105

Chapter Five Some Other Types of Pumps 109

5.1 Molecular Drag Pumps 109

5.2 Roots Blower Pumps 113

5.3 The Use of Getters as Pumps 117

5.4 Gettering and Ionizing 122

5.5 Pumps Using Evaporation and Ionization 124

5.6 Pumps Using Sputtering and Ionization 125

5.7 Cryopumping 132

5.8 Other Sorption Pumps 138

5.9 Water Aspirator,Toepler,and Sprengel Pumps 139

Chapter Six Measurement of Pressure 142

6.1 The Nature of Vacuum Gauges 142

6.2 Bourdon and Diaphragm Gauges 143

6.3 U-Tube Manometers 146

6.4 McLeod Gauges 150

6.5 Pirani and Thermocouple Gauges 162

6.6 Thermionic Ionization Gauges 168

6.7 Cold Cathode Ionization Gauge 176

6.8 Gauges Using Radioactive Materials 181

6.9 Viscosity- and Radiometer-Type Gauges 184

6.10 Use of Discharge Tube to Measure Pressure 187

6.11 Gauges to Measure Very Low Pressures 190

6.12 Calibration and Ranges of Vacuum Gauges 193

Chapter Seven Measurement of Pumping Speed 198

7.1 Why Measure Pumping Speed? 198

7.2 The Metered-Leak Method 199

7.3 Positioning of Vacuum Gauge and Air Leak 201

7.4 Admission of Air 202

7.5 Vacuum Gauges 205

7.6 Test Dome 206

7.7 Rate-of-Rise Measurement 207

7.8 Use of a Known Conductance 211

Chapter Eight Properties of Some Vacuum Materials 216

8.1 The Elements 216

8.2 Mercury and Water 218

8.3 Liquids Used in Vacuum Practice 219

8.4 Gases and Vapors 222

8.5 Elastomers and Some Other Materials 226

8.6 Glasses,Ceramics,and Metals Sealing to Them 233

8.7 Copper and Copper Bearing Alloys 236

8.8 Iron and Some of Its Alloys 238

8.9 Molybdenum,Tantalum,and Tungsten 240

8.10 Nickel and Its Alloys 241

8.11 Vacuum Greases,Oils,Cements,and Waxes 242

8.12 Some Drying and General Sorption Agents 249

8.13 Temperature Data 252

8.14 Alphabetical Listing 252

Chapter Nine Cleaning Techniques 262

9.1 The Nature of Contaminants 262

9.2 General Methods of Reducing Contamination 263

9.3 Descaling and Pickling Processes 266

9.4 Electrolytic Cleaning and Polishing 268

9.5 Cleaning of Mercury and Glass 271

9.6 Miscellaneous Cleaning Procedures 273

9.7 Cleaning by Degassing 274

Chapter Ten Some Fabrication Techniques 279

10.1 Glass versus Metal 279

10.2 Glass-to-Metal Seals 281

10.3 Fabrication of Some Other Types of Seals 283

10.4 Soldering 285

10.5 Brazing 288

10.6 Hydrogen Brazing 298

10.7 Welding 301

10.8 Electroplating 305

10.9 Gasketed Joints 309

10.10 Construction of Vacuum Vessels 318

Chapter Eleven Baffles,Traps,and Valves 322

11.1 The Use of Baffles and Traps 322

11.2 Some Designs of Baffles 324

11.3 Some Designs of Traps 328

11.4 Operation and Maintenance of Baffles and Traps 338

11.5 Liquid Nitrogen Filling Systems 341

11.6 Pumping Losses in Baffles and Traps 343

11.7 The Functions of Vacuum Valves 349

11.8 Gate,Disk,and Flap Valves 351

11.9 Globe,Needle,and Diaphragm Valves 356

11.10 Stopcock,Plug,and Ball Valves 359

11.11 Bakable Valves 363

11.12 Some Special Valves 367

11.13 Care and Maintenance of Valves 369

Chapter Twelve Some Other Vacuum Components 371

12.1 Common Static Seals Using Elastomers 371

12.2 Sliding and Rotating Seals 377

12.3 High Temperature Seals 383

12.4 Low Temperature Seals 388

12.5 Some Other Forms of Seals 391

12.6 Couplings,Hose Clamps,etc. 395

12.7 Electrical Lead-Throughs 398

12.8 Leak Devices and Cut-Offs 401

12.9 Protective Devices 407

Chapter Thirteen Conventional Vacuum Systems 411

13.1 The Nature of Such Systems 411

13.2 Basic Design Considerations 412

13.3 Conductances of Components 413

13.4 Designing a Vacuum System 414

13.5 Setting Up a New Vacuum System 422

13.6 Starting Up a Vacuum System 423

13.7 Starting and Operating Tight Vacuum Systems 426

13.8 Shutting Down a Vacuum System 428

13.9 Maintenance Problems with Vacuum Systems 429

13.10 The Small Vacuum Laboratory 430

Chapter Fourteen Very High and Ultra-High Vacuum Systems 433

14.1 The Nature of Such Systems 433

14.2 Small Very High Vacuum Systems 434

14.3 Small Ultra-High Vacuum Systems 436

14.4 Bake-Out Arrangement for Small Systems 440

14.5 Bake-Out Procedure for Small Systems 441

14.6 Large Low Pressure Vacuum Systems 444

14.7 Bake-Out of Large Systems 451

14.8 Construction Materials and Techniques 453

14.9 Is There a Low Pressure Limit? 454

Chapter Fifteen Finding and Repairing Leaks 456

15.1 When Is a System Tight? 456

15.2 Sizes of Leaks 457

15.3 Methods of Leak Detection 458

15.4 Sealing Substance Outside,Pressure Change Inside 460

15.5 Rate-of-Rise Measurements 460

15.6 High Pressure Inside,Indicator Outside 463

15.7 Spark Coils and Discharge Tubes 466

15.8 Probe Materials with Standard Vacuum Gauges 468

15.9 Unique Response of Vacuum Gauges 469

15.10 Halogen Leak Detectors 473

15.11 The Helium Leak Detector 474

15.12 Sensitivity of Helium Leak Detectors 475

15.13 Response and Clean-Up Times 478

15.14 Vacuum Testing 480

15.15 Pressure and Pressure-Vacuum Testing 484

15.16 Commercial Helium Leak Detectors 488

15.17 What Leak Detection System Should Be Used? 493

15.18 Some General Rules for Leak Hunting 497

15.19 Repairing Leaks 499

Appendices 503

A Quantities from Kinetic Theory of Gases 503

B Mechanical,Ejector,and Diffusion-Ejector Pump Oils 506

C Quantities and Relationships Useful in Vacuum Practice 508

D Appearance of Discharges in Gases and Vapors at Low Pressures 514

E Bibliography 515

Index 523