PREFACE 1
CHAPTER 1. A GENERAL OVERVIEW OF SEABORNE TRANSPORTATION 3
Some Historical Remarks 7
CHAPTER 2. THE OPERATION OF CONFERENCES 15
Some Characteristics of Conference Agreements 21
Pooling Agreements 24
CHAPTER 3. COST STRUCTURE, FREIGHT RATES, AND TARIFFS 29
The Cost of Service 29
Demand Factor 30
The Competition 31
The Tariff 34
Open Rates 36
Stability of Freight Rates 36
Increases in Freight Rates 39
Notice of Change in Freight Rates and Publication of Tariffs 43
Averaging Freight Rates 43
The Share of Freight Rates in the Commodity Price 45
Disparities in Freight Rates 46
Regulating the Freight Rates 47
Uniform Rates 49
Container Tariff Rules 51
Surcharges and Currency Adjustment Factor 52
Currency Adjustment Factor 55
Promotional Freight Rates 56
CHAPTER 4. LOYALTY AGREEMENTS 59
The Deferred Rebate 59
The Dual Rate Contract 62
The Dual Rate Contract in the U.S. 64
Loyalty Agreements in Australia 75
CHAPTER 5. PASSENGER CONFERENCES 77
CHAPTER 6. MONOPOLISTIC ASPECTS OF THE CONFERENCE SYSTEM 79
Competition to Conferences 81
Independent Liners 83
Tramps 85
Competition Among Conference Members 88
Malpractice and Self-policing 89
Competition and Cooperation Among Conferences 95
Air Competition 97
Competition from Soviet Fleets 99
Discrimination in Shipping 102
Bilateral Agreements 106
U.S. Shipping Discrimination Policies 108
Rationalization of Shipping Services 111
CHAPTER 7. SHIPPERS' COUNCILS AND CONSULTATION MACHINERY 117
Organization, Membership and Function of Shippers' Councils 117
Shippers' Councils in Australia 120
Shippers' Councils in Western Europe 123
The ESC Structure and its Consultation Machinery 126
Shippers' Councils in India 127
Shippers' Councils in the U.S. 130
Some Concluding Remarks on Shippers' Councils and Consultations 132
CHAPTER 8. CONTAINERIZATION, CONSORTIA, AND INTERMODALISM 135
The Consortium 140
Intermodalism 145
Land Bridges 150
CHAPTER 9. INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENTS IN THE FIELD OF SHIPPING CONFERENCES 153
Institutional Developments in Europe 153
Less Developed Countries and Shipping Conferences 157
Development of National Merchant Marines in LDCs 161
Developed Countries' Attitudes Toward the Development of LDCs Fleets 165
UNCTAD and Shipping 167
CHAPTER 10. A CODE FOR CONFERENCES 171
The Main Provisions of UNCTAD's Code 174
Some Comments on UNCTAD's Code 175
Dispute Settlement and Enforcement Machinery 183
EEC and the Code 188
Conclusion 192
CHAPTER 11. U.S. AND THE CODE 197
Recent Developments in the U.S. 198
Recent Developments in U.S. Shipping Policy 200
CHAPTER 12. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 205
TABLE OF COMPARATIVE PROVISIONS OF REGULATORY MACHINERIES 216
APPENDICES 219
Appendix Ⅰ. Convention on a Code of Conduct for Liner Conferences 219
Appendix Ⅱ. Code of Practice for Conferences 245
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 253