Introduction 1
1 The Emerging System of International Criminal Justice 10
Ⅰ. Introduction 10
Ⅱ. Prosecution of International Crimes before Domestic Courts 11
A. National Jurisdiction for International Crimes 11
B. Is There an Obligation to Exercise Domestic Criminal Jurisdiction for International Crimes? 13
C. Challenges of Domestic Prosecution 18
D. Prosecution before National Courts of Third States on the Basis of Universal Jurisdiction 19
Ⅲ. Trials of International Crimes before International Courts 28
A. The Post-War Period: The Nuremberg and Tokyo Tribunals and the Work of the International Law Commission 28
B. The Ad Hoc International Criminal Tribunals 31
ⅰ. Establishing the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia 31
ⅱ. Establishing the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda 33
ⅲ. The Development of the Completion Strategy 34
ⅳ. Relationship between the Ad Hoc Tribunals and National Jurisdictions 36
ⅴ. Conclusion: The Ad Hoc Tribunals and Their Contribution to International Criminal Justice 44
C. The International Criminal Court 45
ⅰ. Establishment 45
ⅱ. Jurisdiction 46
ⅲ. 'Complementary' Justice: The System of International Criminal Justice as Contemplated by the Rome Statute 50
ⅳ. Conclusion 55
Ⅳ. Conclusion 55
2 Hybrid and Internationalised Tribunals: A Study of Existing Practice 58
Ⅰ. Introduction 58
Ⅱ. Special Court for Sierra Leone 65
A. Background to the Conflict in Sierra Leone 65
B. The Establishment of the SCSL 68
C. Key Features and Jurisdiction 70
Ⅲ. Special Tribunal for Lebanon 73
A. The Assassination of Rafik Hariri and the Establishment of the UNIIIC 73
B. Further Attacks and the Establishment of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon 75
C. Key Features and Jurisdiction 77
Ⅳ. Kosovo and the International Judges and Prosecutors Programme 79
A. The Conflict in Kosovo 79
B. Accountability for Violations of International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights Law 82
C. Key Features and Jurisdiction 84
D. The Situation Following the Declaration of Independence and the Transfer to EULEX 87
Ⅴ. UNTAET and the Serious Crimes Process 90
A. The Indonesian Occupation of East Timor, the Consultation on Independence and International Administration 90
B. The Quest for Accountability for Violations in East Timor 93
C. Key Features and Jurisdiction 95
D. Further Accountability Initiatives and the Re-activation of the SPSC Process 98
Ⅵ. War Crimes Chamber for Bosnia-Herzegovina 101
A. The Conflict in Bosnia and Herzegovina 101
B. Accountability for Human Rights Violations 104
C. Key Features and Jurisdiction 106
Ⅶ. Iraqi High Tribunal 109
A. Saddam Hussein's Reign in Iraq 109
B. Occupation of Iraq: May 2003-June 2004 110
C. Establishing the Iraqi High Tribunal 113
D. Key Features and Jurisdiction 117
Ⅷ. Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia 120
A. Regime of the Khmer Rouge 120
B. Accountability for Violations and the Negotiations for the ECCC 121
C. Key Features and Jurisdiction 128
Ⅸ. Conclusion 133
3 Exclusions and Proposals for Future Hybrid and Internationalised Tribunals 134
Ⅰ. Introduction 134
Ⅱ. Institutions with International Elements Not Considered to be Hybrid or Internationalised Tribunals 135
A. The Nuremberg and Tokyo Tribunals 135
B. Serbian War Crimes Chamber 139
C. The Lockerbie Court 140
D. Other Institutions 144
E. Conclusion 148
Ⅲ. Proposed Hybrid and Internationalised Tribunals 149
A. Special Tribunal for Burundi 149
B. The Special Court for Darfur, Sudan 152
ⅰ. The Discussion Surrounding the Referral to the International Criminal Court 153
ⅱ. The ICC and the Arrest Warrant for President Bashir 155
C. Specialised Chamber in the Democratic Republic of the Congo 157
D. An Extraterritorial Piracy Tribunal 161
E. Special Tribunal for Kenya 172
F. The Extraordinary Criminal Court for Liberia 178
G. Special Tribunal for the Trial of Hissene Habre 182
Ⅳ. Conclusion 185
4 Hybrid and Internationalised Tribunals: In Search of a Definition 187
Ⅰ. Introduction 187
Ⅱ. What is Driving the Demand for Hybrid and Internationalised Tribunals? 189
A. Circumstances Leading to Establishment 191
B. Existence of an International Criminal Tribunal with Jurisdiction 196
C. The Applicable Legal Framework 200
D. Conclusion 201
Ⅲ. Is There a Definition of a Hybrid and Internationalised Tribunal? 201
A. Criminal Judicial Function 202
B. Duration of the Tribunal 202
C. Participation of International Personnel 204
D. Location of the Tribunal 206
E. Involvement of the International Community, in particular the United Nations 206
F. Funding Mechanism 210
G. Legal Basis, Legal Capacity and Powers 212
H. Jurisdiction: An Introduction 214
I. Temporal Jurisdiction 215
J. Territorial Jurisdiction 218
K. Personal Jurisdiction 219
L. Material Jurisdiction 227
ⅰ. Factors for the Inclusion of International Crimes 227
ⅱ. Must Hybrid and Internationalised Tribunals Exercise Jurisdiction in Respect of International Crimes? 232
ⅲ. Factors for the Inclusion of Ordinary Crimes 243
ⅳ. Is There a Requirement for the Jurisdiction of Hybrid and Internationalised Tribunals to Include Ordinary Crimes under Domestic Law? 246
ⅴ. Conclusions 248
M. Relationship with Other Institutions 248
N. Conclusion: Is there a Definition? 249
5 Legal and Jurisdictional Bases of Hybrid and Internationalised Tribunals 253
Ⅰ. Introduction 253
Ⅱ. Tribunals Established by the Security Council 254
A. The Power of the Security Council to Establish an Ad Hoc Tribunal 254
B. Can the Security Council Establish a Hybrid or Internationalised Criminal Tribunal? 259
C. The Ambiguous Legal Basis of the STL 260
D. The STL as a 'Treaty-Based' Tribunal 262
E. Resolution 1757 as the Legal Basis for the STL 267
F. Which Option Did the Council Intend? 268
G. Conclusion 269
Ⅲ. Tribunals Established by Treaty 271
A. General 271
B. Legal Challenges to the Establishment of the SCSL 273
ⅰ. The SCSL as a 'Chapter VII' Court 274
ⅱ. Unlawful Delegation of Powers 278
ⅲ. Arguments Based on a Violation of the Constitution of Sierra Leone 279
ⅳ. National Institution Arguments 281
C. Conclusion 282
Ⅳ. Tribunals Established Under National Law, With International Elements 282
A. Tribunals Established Under International Administration or During Military Occupation 282
ⅰ. United Nations Administration of Territory: The Legal Basis of the IJPP and the SPSC 282
ⅱ. International Civilian Administration: The War Crimes Chamber for Bosnia and Herzegovina 288
ⅲ. Courts Established During Military Occupation: The Iraqi High Tribunal 289
B. Tribunals Established Under National Law, Operating with International Assistance: The ECCC 293
C. Conclusion 299
Ⅴ. Conclusions: Legal Bases of Hybrid and Internationalised Tribunals 300
Ⅵ. The Nature of Jurisdiction Conferred on Hybrid and Internationalised Tribunals 300
A. Introduction 300
B. Territorial Jurisdiction 301
C. Delegation of Jurisdiction from the (Normally) Territorial State 303
ⅰ. Lawfulness of a Delegation of Jurisdiction 305
ⅱ. Do the Differences Between the ICC and the SCSL Preclude a Delegation of Jurisdiction to the SCSL? 308
ⅲ. Delegation of Universal Jurisdiction: Specific Concerns 311
ⅳ. Conclusion 314
D. Universal Jurisdiction Arising from the Nature of the Crimes 314
E. Jurisdiction Based on the Powers of the Security Council Under Chapter VII 316
Ⅶ. Conclusion 318
6 Legal Barriers to the Exercise of Jurisdiction 321
Ⅰ. Introduction 321
Ⅱ. The Principle of Legality 322
Ⅲ. Immunity 326
A. Introduction 326
B. Nature of Immunity in International Law 326
C. The Internationalised Tribunals 330
ⅰ. The International Judges and Prosecutors Programme in Kosovo 331
ⅱ. The Special Panels for Serious Crimes in East Timor 331
ⅲ. The War Crimes Chamber in Bosnia and Herzegovina 332
ⅳ. The Iraqi High Tribunal 333
ⅴ. The Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia 334
ⅵ. Conclusion 335
D. The Hybrid Tribunals 335
ⅰ. Treaty-based Hybrid Tribunals: The Special Court for Sierra Leone 336
ⅱ. Hybrid Tribunals Established by the Security Council: the Special Tribunal for Lebanon 340
E. Conclusion 346
Ⅳ. Amnesties 348
A. Introduction 348
B. Amnesties and the Internationalised and Hybrid Tribunals 351
ⅰ. Internationalised Tribunals 352
ⅱ. Hybrid Tribunals 356
C. Conclusion 361
Ⅴ. Securing Custody of the Accused 363
A. Introduction: Cooperation and International Criminal Tribunals 363
B. Cooperation and the Hybrid Tribunals 369
ⅰ. Hybrid Tribunals Established by the Security Council: the Special Tribunal for Lebanon 369
ⅱ. Treaty-Based Hybrid Courts: the Special Court for Sierra Leone 372
C. Cooperation and Internationalised Tribunals 374
D. Conclusion 378
Ⅵ. Statutes of Limitation 380
Ⅶ. Ne Bis in Idem 384
A. Judgment by a National Court 384
B. Judgment by a Hybrid or Internationalised Tribunal and National Courts 387
C. Judgment by a Hybrid or Internationalised Tribunal and the International Criminal Court 388
D. Conclusion 389
Ⅷ. Relationship with Other Courts and Tribunals 390
A. Hybrid and Internationalised Tribunals and Their Relationship to Domestic Courts 390
ⅰ. Courts Within the Territorial State 391
ⅲ. Hybrid and Internationalised Tribunals Exercising Supervisory Jurisdiction in Respect of Domestic Courts 396
B. Courts in Third States 398
Ⅸ. Hybrid and Internationalised Tribunals and the International Criminal Court 399
A. Introduction 399
B. Internationalised Tribunals 403
C. Hybrid Tribunals 404
ⅰ. Hybrid Tribunals Established on the Basis of a Treaty 404
ⅱ. Hybrid Tribunals Established by the Security Council 406
D. Conclusion 407
Ⅹ. Conclusion 408
Conclusions 410
Index 459