PART Ⅰ:THE CONCEPT OF STATEHOOD IN INTERNATIONAL LAW 3
1.STATEHOOD,RECOGNITION,AND INTERNATIONAL LAW 3
1.1 Introductory 3
1.2 Statehood in early international law 5
(1)Doctrine 5
(2)Some aspects of State practice 9
1.3 Recognition and Statehood 10
(1)The early view of recognition 10
(2)Positivism and recognition 12
(3)Statehood in nineteenth-century international law 12
1.4 Recognition of States in modern international law 15
(1)Introductory 15
(2)Recognition:the great debate 16
(Ⅰ)The constitutive theory 17
(Ⅱ)The declaratory theory 20
(3)Conclusions 23
1.5 Certain basic concepts 25
(1)International legal personality 25
(2)'Sovereignty' 26
(3)The distinction between'State'and'government' 27
(4)The distinction between'State personality'and'State succession' 29
2.THE CRITERIA FOR STATEHOOD 31
2.1 Introductory 31
2.2 Classical criteria for Statehood 36
(1)Defined territory 36
(2)Permanent population 40
(3)Government 42
(4)Capacity to enter into relations with other States 47
(5)Independence 48
(Ⅰ)Separate existence within reasonably coherent frontiers 52
(Ⅱ)Absence of subjection to the authority of another State or States 52
(a)Formal independence 52
(b)Actual independence 56
(c)The relation between formal and actual independence 69
(6)Sovereignty 71
(7)Other criteria 71
(Ⅰ)Permanence 71
(Ⅱ)Willingness and ability to obey international law 72
(Ⅲ)A certain degree of civilization 73
(Ⅳ)Recognition 74
(Ⅴ)Legal order 74
3.CRITERIA FOR STATEHOOD SUGGESTED AS A RESULT OF MODERN DEVELOPMENTS IN INTERNATIONAL LAW 77
3.1 Legality and Statehood 77
(1)Jus cogens in modern international law 79
(Ⅰ)Legal effects of jus cogens on acts or situations other than treaties 81
(Ⅱ)Status of entities created by illegal treaties 82
(2)Illegality and Statehood:some tentative conclusions 83
3.2 Statehood and self-determination 84
(1)Self-determination in modern international law 85
(Ⅰ)Self-determination before 1945 85
(Ⅱ)The principle of self-determination in the United Nations Charter 89
(Ⅲ)Identifying the unit of self-determination:the problem of criteria 91
(a)The mandate and trusteeship systems 92
(b)Non-self-governing territories:Chapter XI of the Charter 92
(c)Other cases of application of the principle to particular territorial disputes or situations 93
(Ⅳ)The consequences of self-determination 94
(Ⅴ)Conclusions 95
(2)Statehood and the operation of the principle of selfdetermination 102
(3)Self-determination and effectiveness:the case of Rhodesia 103
3.3 Entities created by the illegal use of force 106
(1)The relation between self-determination and the rules relating to the use of force 108
(Ⅰ)Assistance to established local insurgents 113
(Ⅱ)Military intervention in aid of self-determination 114
3.4 Other cases 119
(1)Entities not claiming to be States 119
(2)Puppet States and the 1949 Geneva Conventions 119
(3)Apartheid and the Bantustan policy 120
(4)Violation of conventional stipulations providing for independence 120
3.5 Non-recognition in modern international law 120
(1)Non-recognition and territorial status 121
(2)The consequences of non-recognition 124
4.ISSUES OF STATEHOOD BEFORE UNITED NATIONS ORGANS 129
4.1 General considerations 129
4.2 League and United Nations membership 131
(1)Membership practice under the League of Nations 131
(2)The United Nations:original membership 132
(3)The United Nations:admission to membership 133
4.3 Statehood for other United Nations purposes 137
(1)Statehood and dispute settlement:Articles 32 and 35(2) 137
(2)Claims to be parties to the Statute of the International Court of Justice 138
(3)Other cases 139
4.4 The micro-State problem 139
5.THE CRITERIA FOR STATEHOOD APPLIED:SOME SPECIAL CASES 142
5.1 General considerations 142
5.2 Entities unrecognized as separate States:Taiwan(Formosa) 143
(1)Historical background 143
(2)The present legal status of Taiwan 146
(3)Conclusions 151
5.3 Entities recognized as States'for special reasons':The Vatican City and the Holy See 152
(1)The international status of the Vatican City 154
(2)The international status of the Holy See 156
(3)The relation between the Holy See and the State of the City of the Vatican 157
5.4'Internationalized territories':The Free City of Danzig 160
(1)The concept of'Internationalized territories' 160
(2)The legal status of the Free City of Danzig 163
(3)Recent trends in internationalization:Cyprus 166
PART Ⅱ:THE CREATION OF STATES IN INTERNATIONAL LAW 173
6.ORIGINAL ACQUISITION AND PROBLEMS OF STATEHOOD 173
6.1 General considerations 173
6.2 International status of native communities 176
(1)Statehood of native communities 176
(2)Legal personality of native communities not regarded as States 177
6.3 Acquisition of territory from native communities 182
(1)Status of native treaties of cession 182
(2)Legal effects of native treaties 183
(3)Grants of territory to private persons 184
6.4 Original occupation of territory by a new State 184
7.THE CREATION AND STATUS OF DEPENDENT STATES AND OTHER DEPENDENT ENTITIES 186
7.1 General principles 186
7.2 Protectorates and protected States 187
(1)Protected States 188
(2)International protectorates 194
(3)Colonial protectorates 198
(4)Legal effects of protectorates 201
(Ⅰ)Relations inter se of protected and protecting State 201
(Ⅱ)Protectorates and State succession 203
(Ⅲ)Termination of protected status 205
(Ⅳ)Other legal effects 207
7.3 Other cases 209
(1)Special treaty relations 209
(2)Vassal States and suzerainty 209
(3)Autonomy and residual sovereignty 211
(4)Spheres of influence 214
8.DEVOLUTION 215
8.1 Introductory 215
8.2 Explicit grants of independence 216
(1)Purported but illusory grants of independence 218
(2)Partial or incomplete grants of independence 218
(3)Grants in violation of self-determination 219
(Ⅰ)Grants to unrepresentative governments within selfdetermination units 219
(Ⅱ)Grants disruptive of the'territorial integrity'of a self-determination unit 220
(4)Grants of independence in furtherance of illegal policies:the Transkei? 222
(Ⅰ)Origins of the Transkei:the Bantustan policy 222
(Ⅱ)The status of the Transkei 225
(5)Colonial enclaves and other rights of pre-emption 227
(6)Derogations from grants of independence 228
8.3 Relinquishment of sovereignty without grant 228
8.4 The gradual devolution of governmental power:general principles 229
(1)Preliminary considerations 229
(2)The'unitary State'theory 230
(3)General principles of the status of devolving entities 232
8.5 The principles applied:The devolution of States within the British Commonwealth 238
9.SECESSION 247
9.1 Secession as a method of the creation of States 247
9.2 The criteria for Statehood in secessionary situations 248
(1)The relevance of recognition 248
(Ⅰ)Metropolitan recognition 248
(Ⅱ)Recognition by third States 252
(Ⅲ)Recognition of belligerency 252
(2)The traditional test of independence in a secessionary situation 255
(3)Independence and secession in modern international law 257
(Ⅰ)The secession of a self-determination unit 258
(a)Secession in furtherance of self-determination 258
(b)Secession in violation of self-determination 263
(c)The relevance of the illegal use of force 263
(Ⅱ)Secession within a metropolitan State 263
(Ⅲ)Secession fomented by external illegal force 266
9.3 Certain incidents of secession in modern international law 266
(1)The legality of secession in modern international law 266
(2)Belligerency and insurgency in modern civil war 268
(3)The application of the laws of war to civil conflicts 269
(4)The problem of intervention:aid to seceding regimes 270
(5)Problems of continuity and commencement 270
10.THE DIVIDED STATES 271
10.1 General principles:the category'divided States' 271
10.2 The'two Germanies' 273
(1)Quadripartite control and its effects on Germany 274
(2)The creation of the Federal Republic of Germany 275
(3)The creation of the German Democratic Republic 276
(4)Residual quadripartite competences over'Germany as a whole' 277
(5)The status of Berlin 278
(6)Issues of identity and continuity 280
10.3 Other cases of'divided States' 281
(1)Korea after 1947 281
(2)Vietnam after 1945 284
(3)China after 1948 286
10.4 Conclusions 286
11.UNIONS AND FEDERATIONS OF STATES 288
11.1 The classification of political unions 288
11.2 Federation,confederation,and other forms of political union 290
(1)Real and personal unions 290
(2)Federations and confederations 291
(3)Unusual formations 294
(4)Associated States 295
11.3 Unions of States in international organizations 295
PART Ⅲ:THE CREATION OF STATES IN INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS 301
12.INTERNATIONAL DISPOSITIVE POWERS 301
12.1 Introductory 301
12.2 Territorial dispositions by multilateral treaty 302
(1)Dispositions in treaties of peace 302
(Ⅰ)The nineteenth-century practice 302
(Ⅱ)The First World War settlements 308
(Ⅲ)The Second World War settlements 309
(a)The re-establishment of annexed or conquered States 310
(b)Poland 1939-1946 311
(2)Dispositions anticipatory of peace treaties 312
(3)Dispositions delegated to groups of States 313
(4)International status of dispositions pursuant to multilateral treaties 315
12.3 Problems of collective recognition 319
(1)The concept of'collective recognition' 319
(2)Collective recognition in international organizations 322
(3)Collective conditional recognition 322
12.4 Territorial dispositions by international organizations 323
(1)General principles 323
(2)The Concert of Europe 324
(3)The League of Nations 325
(4)The United Nations and territorial dispositions 325
(Ⅰ)General principles:delegated and inherent authority 325
(a)General Assembly 328
(b)The Security Council 328
(Ⅱ)Functions pursuant to the peace treaties 329
(a)Trieste 329
(b)Disposition of Italian Colonies in Africa 330
(Ⅲ)Functions pursuant to the Mandate and Trusteeship Systems 332
(Ⅳ)Other cases 332
(a)West Irian 332
(b)Jerusalem 333
(Ⅴ)Conclusion 333
12.5 The notion of'international dispositive powers' 333
13.MANDATES AND TRUST TERRITORIES 335
13.1 General 335
13.2 Termination of Mandates and Trusteeships 337
(1)Termination of Mandates 337
(Ⅰ)During the period of the League 337
(Ⅱ)After the dissolution of the League 340
(Ⅲ)By transfer to Trusteeship 341
(2)Termination of Trusteeships 341
(3)Legal effects of termination 342
13.3 Revocation of Mandates and Trusteeships 344
(1)Revocation of Mandates during the period of the League 344
(2)Revocation of Trusteeships 348
(3)Revocation of Mandates by United Nations organs 350
14.NON-SELF-GOVERNING TERRITORIES:THE LAW AND PRACTICE OF DECOLONIZATION 356
14.1 Introductory 356
14.2 The development in practice of Chapter XI of the Charter 358
(1)The definition of'non-self-governing territories' 358
(2)The ambit of Chapter XI in practice 360
(3)Application of Chapter XI to non-colonial territories 362
14.3 The international status of non-self-governing territories 363
(1)'Sovereignty'and non-self-governing territories 363
(2)The use of force and non-self-governing territories 364
(3)The legal personality of dependent peoples 366
14.4 Termination of non-self-governing status:the forms of selfgovernment 367
(1)Termination of non-self-governing status 367
(Ⅰ)Criteria of self-government 367
(Ⅱ)Determination of cessation of non-self-governing status 368
(2)The forms of self-government 369
(Ⅰ)Independence 369
(Ⅱ)Incorporation in another State 369
(Ⅲ)Association 370
(a)Association arrangements in practice since 1952 371
(b)The international legal status of Associated States 375
(Ⅳ)Colonial enclaves and rights of revindication 377
PART IV:PROBLEMS OF COMMENCEMENT,CONTINUITY,AND TERMINATION 387
15.THE COMMENCEMENT OF STATES 387
15.1 The problem of commencement 387
(1)Problems of commencement in municipal courts 387
(2)Problems of commencement in international fora 389
(3)'Illegal entities'and problems of commencement 391
15.2 States'in statu nascendi' 391
15.3 New States and the acquisition of territorial sovereignty 396
(1)The acquisition of statehood as a'mode of acquisition'of territory 397
(2)Claims to the entire territory of a new State 398
16.PROBLEMS OF IDENTITY,CONTINUITY,AND REVERSION 400
16.1 The problem of identity and continuity:general considerations 400
16.2 Some applications of the concept of continuity 403
(1)Territorial changes 404
(Ⅰ)In general 404
(Ⅱ)'Imperial States' 404
(2)Changes in population 405
(3)Changes in government 405
(4)Changes in international status 406
(5)Belligerent occupation 407
(6)Continuity and illegal annexation 407
(7)Identity without continuity 407
(8)Multiple changes and State continuity 408
16.3 Reversion to sovereignty 412
(1)Rights of reversion by treaty 412
(2)Reversion of territorial enclaves 412
(3)Postliminium 412
(4)Reversion to sovereignty 414
17.THE EXTINCTION OF STATES 417
17.1 General principles 417
17.2 Extinction and illegal annexation 418
17.3 Extinction and prescription 419
conclusion 421
Appendices 424
1.List of States and Territorial Entities Proximate to States 424
2.League Mandates and United Nations Trusteeships 426
3.The United Nations and Non-Self-Governing Territories,1946—1977 429
Bibliography 437
Table of Cases 481
Index 489