CHAPTER ONE: Introduction 1
1.1 Corpora 3
1.2 The role of computers in corpus linguistics 5
1.3 The scope of corpus linguistics 7
CHAPTER TWO: The desing and development of corpora 13
2.1 Pre-electronic corpora 13
2.1.1 Biblical and literary 13
2.1.2 Lexicographical 14
2.1.3 Dialect 15
2.1.4 Language education 16
2.1.5 Grammatical 17
2.2 Types of electronic corpora 19
2.3 Major electronic corpora for linguistic research 23
2.3.1 First generation corpora 23
2.3.1.1 The Brown Corpus 23
2.3.1.2 Thee Lancaster-Oslo/Bergen (LOB) Corpus 27
2.3.1.3 Other first generation corpors modelled on the Brown Corpus 29
2.3.1.4 The London-Lund Corpus (LLC) 31
2.3.2 Corpora of English compiled for specialized purposes 33
2.3.2.1 Corpora for lexicography 33
2.3.2.2 Dictionaries as corpora 35
2.3.2.3 Corpora for studying spoken English 36
2.3.2.4 Diachronic corpora 38
2.3.2.5 Corpora for research on language acquisition 40
2.3.2.6 Other corpora for special purposes 43
2.3.3 Second generation mega-corpora 45
2.3.3.1 The Cobuild project 46
2.3.3.2 The Longman Corpus Network 48
2.3.3.3 The British National Corpus (BNC) 50
2.3.3.4 The International Corpus of English (ICE) 54
2.4 Electronic text databases 57
2.5 Issues in corpus design and compilation 60
2.5.1 Static or dynamic 60
2.5.2 Representativeness and balance 62
2.5.3 Size 66
2.6 Compiling a corpus 70
2.6.1 Corpus design 70
2.6.2 Planning a storage system and keeping records 75
2.6.3 Getting permission 76
2.6.4 Text capture 78
2.6.4.1 Written texts 78
2.6.4.2 Spoken texts 80
2.6.5 Markup 82
2.7 Organizations and professional associations concerned with corpus design, development and research 85
CHAPTER THREE: Corpus-based descriptions of English 88
3.1 Lexical description 91
3.1.1 Pre-electronic lexical description for pedagogical purposes 93
3.1.2 Computer corpus-based studies of the lexicon 97
3.1.3 Collocation 108
3.2 Grammatical studies centred on morphemes or words 121
3.2.1 Verb-form use for tense and aspect 122
3.2.2 Modals 130
3.2.3 Voice 134
3.2.4 Verb and particle use 137
3.2.5 Subjunctive 137
3.2.6 Prepositions: of, at, from,between, through, by 139
3.2.7 Conjunctions: since, when, once 144
3.2.8 More andless 152
3.3 Grammatical studies centred on the sentence 154
3.3.1 Sentence length 157
3.3.2 Syntactic processes 159
3.3.2.1 Clause patterning 159
3.3.2.2 Noun modification 162
3.3.2.3 Conditionality 165
3.3.2.4 Causation 167
3.3.2.5 Negation 171
3.3.2.6 Clefting 173
3.4 Pragmatics and spoken discourse 174
3.5 Corpus-based studies of variation in the use of English 180
3.5.1 Comparisons of spoken and written English 182
3.5.2 Comparisons of regional varieties of English 190
3.5.3 Variation in registers and genres 197
3.5.4 Studies of language change 199
CHAPTER FOUR: Corpus analysis 204
4.1 Corpus annotation and processing 206
4.1.1 Lemmatization 206
4.1.2 Word-class tagging 209
4.1.3 Semantic aspects of tagging 225
4.1.4 Parsing 231
4.2 Procedures used in corpus analysis 244
4.2.1 Word lists 245
4.2.2 Concordances 247
4.2.3 Statistics in corpus analysis 258
4.3 Corpus search and retrieval software 259
4.3.1 The Oxford Concordance Program (OCP) 260
4.3.2 WordCruncher 261
4.3.3 TACT 262
4.3.4 Other widely used software for special purposes 263
4.3.5 New generation software 265
CHAPTER FIVE: Implications and applications of corpus-based analysis 268
5.1 Goals of linguistic description and the effect of corpora on methodology 270
5.1.1 Language as possibility and language as probability 270
5.1.2 The description of English 273
5.2 Corpus linguistics and computational linguistics 276
5.3 Corpus-based approaches to language teaching 280
5.3.1 The content of language teaching 282
5.3.2 Language teaching methodology 288
References 295
Index 310
文库索引 316