SECTIONⅠBasics of Food Microbiology 1
1The Trajectory of Food Microbiology 3
Introduction 3
Who's on First? 3
Food Microbiology, Past and Present 4
To the Future and Beyond 8
Summary 10
Suggested reading 10
Questions for critical thought 10
2Factors That Influence Microbesin Foods 11
Introduction 11
Food Ecosystems, Homeostasis, and HurdleTechnology 12
Foods as Ecosystems 12
Classical Microbiology and Its Limitations 13
Limitations of Detection and Enumeration Methods 13
Homeostasis and Hurdle Technology 27
Growth Kinetics 29
Microbial Physiology and Metabolism 32
Carbon Flow and Substrate Level Phosphorylation 34
The Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle Links Glycolysis to AerobicRespiration 34
Conclusion 36
Summary 36
Suggested reading 36
Questions for critical thought 37
3Spores and Their Significance 39
Introduction 39
Spores in the Food Industry 39
Low-Acid Canned Foods 40
Bacteriology of Sporeformers of Public HealthSignificance 42
Heat Resistance of C.botulinum Spores 44
Spoilage of Acid and Low-Acid Canned and Vacuum-PackagedFoods by Sporeformers 46
Spore Biology 47
Structure 47
Macromolecules 48
Small Molecules 48
Dormancy 48
Resistance 49
Freezing and Desiccation Resistance 49
Pressure Resistance 50
γ-Radiation Resistance 50
UV Radiation Resistance 50
Chemical Resistance 50
Spore Heat Resistance 50
The Cycle of Sporulation and Germination 52
Sporulation 52
Activation 53
Germination 53
Outgrowth 54
Summary 54
Suggested reading 55
Questions for critical thought 55
4Detection and Enumeration of Microbesin Food 57
Introduction 57
Sample Collection and Processing 58
Analysis 58
Metabolism-Based Methods 61
Surface Testing 62
Summary 63
Suggested reading 63
Questions for critical thought 63
5Rapid and Automated Microbial Methods 65
Introduction 65
Sample Processing 66
Requirements and Validation of Rapid Methods 66
Rapid Methods Based on Traditional Methods 66
Immunologically Based Methods 69
Molecular Methods 72
Potpourri of Rapid Methods 74
Summary 75
Suggested reading 75
Questions for critical thought 76
6Indicator Microorganisms andMicrobiological Criteria 77
Introduction 77
The Purpose of Microbiological Criteria 77
The Need To Establish Microbiological Criteria 77
Definitions 78
Who Establishes Microbiological Criteria? 79
Sampling Plans 79
Types of Sampling Plans 80
Establishing Limits 81
Indicators of Microbiological Quality 81
Indicator Microorganisms 82
Metabolic Products 83
Indicators of Foodborne Pathogens and Toxins 84
Indicator Organisms 86
Fecal Coliforms and E.coli 88
Metabolic Products 88
Application and Specific Proposals for MicrobiologicalCriteria for Food and Food Ingredients 89
Current Status 90
Summary 93
Suggested reading 93
Questions for critical thought 93
SECTIONⅡGram-Negative Foodborne Pathogenic Bacteria 95
7Salmonella Species 97
Outbreak 97
Introduction 97
Characteristics of the Organism 100
Biochemical Identification 100
Taxonomy and Nomenclature 101
Serological Identification 101
Physiology 102
Reservoirs 105
Characteristics of Disease 106
Symptoms and Treatment 106
Preventative Measures 107
Antibiotic Resistance 107
Infectious Dose 108
Pathogenicity and Virulence Factors 109
Specific and Nonspecific Human Responses 109
Attachment and Invasion 109
Growth and Survival within Host Cells 110
Virulence Plasmids 110
Other Virulence Factors 110
Summary 111
Suggested reading 112
Questions for critical thought 112
8Campylobacter jejuni 113
Outbreak 113
Introduction 113
Characteristics of the Organism 114
Environmental Susceptibility 114
Reservoirs and Foodborne Outbreaks 114
Characteristics of Disease 117
C.jejuni and C.coli 117
Other Campylobacter Species 117
Epidemiologic Subtyping Systems Useful forInvestigating Foodborne Illnesses 117
Infective Dose and Susceptible Populations 118
Virulence Factors and Mechanismsof Pathogenicity 118
Cell Association and Invasion 119
Flagella and Motility 119
Toxins 120
Other Factors 120
Autoimmune Diseases 120
Immunity 120
Summary 120
Suggested reading 121
Questions for critical thought 121
9Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli 123
Outbreak 123
Introduction 124
Categories of E.coli 124
Characteristics of E.coli O157:H7 and Non-O157:H7EHEC 128
Acid Tolerance 128
Antibiotic Resistance 129
Inactivation by Heat and Irradiation 129
Reservoirs of E.coli O157:H7 130
Detection of E.coli O157:H7 and EHEC on Farms 130
Factors Associated with Bovine Carriage of E.coliO157:H7 130
Cattle Model for Infection by E.coli O157:H7 130
Domestic Animals and Wildlife 130
Humans 131
Disease Outbreaks 131
Geographic Distribution 131
Seasonality of E.coli O157:H7 Infection 132
Age of Patients 132
Transmission of E.coli O157:H7 132
Examples of Foodborne and Waterborne Outbreaks 133
Characteristics of Disease 135
Infectious Dose 135
Mechanisms of Pathogenicity 135
Attaching and Effacing 136
The Locus of Enterocyte Effacement 137
The 60-MDa Plasmid （pO157） 137
Stxs 137
Conclusion 139
Summary 139
Suggested reading 140
Questions for critical thought 140
10Yersinia enterocolitica 141
Outbreak 141
Introduction 141
Characteristics of the Organism 141
Classification 142
Susceptibility and Tolerance 143
Characteristics of Infection 144
Reservoirs 145
Foodborne Outbreaks 146
Mechanisms of Pathogenicity 147
Pathological Changes 147
Virulence Determinants 147
Chromosomal Determinants of Virulence 147
Other Virulence Determinants 148
Pathogenesis of Yersinia-Induced Autoimmunity 148
Summary 149
Suggested reading 149
Questions for critical thought 149
11Shigella Species 151
Outbreak 151
Introduction 151
Classification and Biochemical Characteristics 154
Shigella in Foods 154
Survival and Growth in Foods 155
Characteristics of Disease 155
Foodborne Outbreaks 156
Virulence Factors 157
Genetic Regulation 157
Conclusions 158
Summary 158
Suggested reading 158
Questions for critical thought 158
12Vibrio Species 161
Outbreak 161
Introduction 161
Characteristics of the Organism 162
Epidemiology 162
Characteristics of Disease 163
Susceptibility to Physical and Chemical Treatments 163
V.cholerae 163
V.mimicus 165
V.parahaemolyticus 166
V.vulnificus 167
V.fluvialis, V.furnissii, V.hollisae, and V.alginolyticus 168
Summary 169
Suggested reading 169
Questions for critical thought 170
SECTION Ⅲ Gram-Positive Foodborne Pathogenic Bacteria 171
13Listeria monocytogenes 173
Outbreak 173
Introduction 174
Characteristics of the Organism 175
Classification 175
Susceptibility to Physical and Chemical Agents 176
Listeriosis and Specific Foods 176
Ready-to-Eat Foods 176
Milk Products 177
Cheeses 177
Meat and Poultry Products 177
Seafoods 178
Other Methods of Food Preservation 178
Sources of L.monocytogenes in the Environment 178
Food-Processing Plants 179
Prevalence and the Regulatory Status of L.monocytogenes 180
Human Carriers 181
Foodborne Outbreaks 182
Characteristics of Disease 184
Infectious Dose 184
Virulence Factors and Mechanisms of Pathogenicity 185
Pathogenicity of L.monocytogenes 185
Specific Genes Mediate Pathogenicity 186
Summary 186
Suggested reading 187
Questions for critical thought 187
More questions than answers 187
14 Staphylococcus aureus 189
Outbreak 189
Characteristics of the Organism 190
Historical Aspects and General Considerations 190
Sources of Staphylococcal Food Contamination 190
Resistance to Adverse Environmental Conditions 191
Foodborne Outbreaks 192
Incidence of Staphylococcal Food Poisoning 192
A Typical Large Staphylococcal Food Poisoning Outbreak 193
Characteristics of Disease 193
Infective Dose and Susceptible Populations 194
Numbers of Staphylococci Required 194
Toxin Dose Required 194
Microbiology, Toxins, and Pathogenicity 195
Nomenclature, Characteristics, and Distribution ofStaphylococcal Enterotoxin-Producing Staphylococci 195
Introduction to, and Nomenclature of, the Staphylococcal Enterotoxins 195
Staphylococcal Regulation of Staphylococcal Enterotoxin Expression 196
Summary 200
Suggested reading 200
Questions for critical thought 200
15Clostridium botulinum 203
Introduction 203
Four Faces of Botulism 203
Characteristics of the Disease 208
Toxic and Infectious Doses and SusceptiblePopulations 208
Characteristics of C.botulinum 209
Classification 209
Tolerance of Preservation Methods 211
Sources of C.botulinum 213
Occurrence of C.botulinum in the Environment 213
Occurrence of C.botulinum in Foods 213
Virulence Factors and Mechanismsof Pathogenicity 215
Structure of the Neurotoxins 215
Genetic Regulation of the Neurotoxins 216
Mode of Action of the Neurotoxins 217
Summary 218
Suggested reading 218
Questions for critical thought 218
16Clostridium perfringens 221
The Foodborne Illness 221
A Spore's-Eye View of C.perfringensToxicoinfections 221
A Human View of C.perfringens Type A Foodborne Illness 221
Incidence 222
Food Vehicles for C.perfringens Foodborne Illness 222
Factors Contributing to C.perfringens Type A Foodborne Illness 222
Preventing C.perfringens Type A Foodborne Illness 223
Identification of C.perfringens Type A Foodborne Illness Outbreaks 223
Characteristics of C.perfringens Type A Foodborne Illness 224
Infectious Dose for C.perfringens Type A Foodborne Illness 224
The Organism 224
Overview 224
Classification: Toxin Typing of C.perfringens 226
Susceptibility of C.perfringens to Preservation Methods 227
Reservoirs for C.perfringens Type A 227
Virulence Factors Contributing to C.perfringens Type A Foodborne Illness 228
Heat Resistance 228
C.perfringens Enterotoxin 228
Summary 230
Suggested reading 230
Questions for critical thought 231
17Bacillus cereus 233
Outbreak 233
Introduction 233
Characteristics of the Organism 234
Environmental Sources 234
Foodborne Outbreaks 235
Characteristics of Disease 236
Dose 236
Virulence Factors and Mechanisms of Pathogenicity 237
The Emetic Toxin 237
Enterotoxins 237
The Spore 238
Summary 238
Suggested reading 239
Questions for critical thought 239
SECTION ⅣVOther Microbes Important in Food 241
18 Lactic Acid Bacteria and Food Fermentations 243
Introduction 243
The Biochemical Foundation of Food Fermentation 243
Catabolic Pathways 245
Dairy Fermentations 246
Starter Cultures 248
Production of Aroma Compounds 249
Genetics of Lactic Acid Bacteria 250
Fermented Vegetables 250
Ingredients and Additives Used during Fermentations 251
Sauerkraut Fermentation 251
Pickle Fermentation 252
Meat Fermentations 253
Summary 254
Suggested reading 254
Questions for critical thought 254
19Yeast-Based and Other Fermentations 257
Introduction 257
Fermentations That Use Yeast 258
Bread 258
Beer 259
Wine 261
Vinegar Fermentation 263
Cocoa and Coffee Fermentations 264
Cocoa 264
Coffee 268
Fermented Foods of Non-Western Societies 268
Summary 269
Suggested reading 269
Questions for critical thought 269
20 Spoilage Organisms 271
Introduction 271
Meat, Poultry, and Seafood Products 272
Origin of Microflora in Meat 272
Origin of Microflora in Poultry 272
Origin of Microflora in Finfish 272
Origin of Microflora in Shellfish 273
Bacterial Attachment to Food Surfaces 273
Microbial Progression during Storage 273
Muscle Tissue as a Growth Medium 275
Factors Influencing Spoilage 276
Control of Spoilage of Muscle Foods 278
Milk and Dairy Products 281
Milk and Dairy Products as Growth Media 281
Psychrotrophic Spoilage 283
Spoilage by Fermentative Nonsporeformers 286
Spore-Forming Bacteria 287
Yeasts and Molds 288
Spoilage of Produce and Grains 289
Types of Spoilage 289
Mechanisms of Spoilage 291
Influence of Physiological State 291
Microbiological Spoilage of Vegetables 292
Microbiological Spoilage of Fruits 295
Microbiological Spoilage of Grains and Grain Products 296
Summary 298
Suggested reading 298
Questions for critical thought 298
21 Molds 301
Introduction 301
Isolation, Enumeration, and Identification 301
Aspergillus Species 304
A.flavus and A.parasiticus 308
Other Toxigenic Aspergilli 312
Penicillium Species 313
Significant Penicillium Mycotoxins 313
Fusaria and Toxigenic Molds Other than Aspergilli and Penicillia 316
Toxigenic Fusarium Species 316
Other Toxic Molds 319
Summary 319
Suggested reading 320
Questions for critical thought 320
22 Viruses and Prions 321
Introduction 321
Viruses 322
Elementary Virology 322
Viruses as Agents of Foodborne Illness 323
Bacteriophages in the Dairy Industry 327
Beneficial Uses of Viruses 328
Prions 329
A Short History of the Prion 330
Prion Biology 331
Summary 332
Suggested reading 332
Questions for critical thought 332
SECTIONⅤ Control of Microorganisms in Food 335
23Antimicrobial Preservatives 337
Introduction 337
Factors That Affect Antimicrobial Activity 338
Organic Acids 339
Parabenzoic Acids 340
Nitrites 341
Phosphates 341
Sodium Chloride 341
Disinfectants 342
Sulfites 342
Chlorine 343
Quaternary Ammonium Compounds 343
Peroxides 344
Ozone 344Naturally Occurring Antimicrobials 344
Lysozyme 344
Lactoferrin and Other Iron-Binding Proteins 345
Avidin 345
Spices and Their Essential Oils 346
Onions and Garlic 347
Isothiocyanates 347
Phenolic Compounds 347
Summary 348
Suggested reading 348
Questions for critical thought 348
24 Biologically Based Preservation and Probiotic Bacteria 351
Introduction 351
Biopreservation by Controlled Acidification 352
Bacteriocins 352
General Characteristics 352
Bacteriocin Applications in Foods 354
Probiotic Bacteria 357
The Human GI Tract Is a Microbia Ecosystem 358
Summary 360
Suggested reading 360
Questions for critical thought 360
25 Physical Methods of Food Preservation 363
Introduction 363
Physical Dehydration Processes 363
Drying 363
Freeze-Drying 364
Cool Storage 364
Controlled-Atmosphere Storage 365
Modified-Atmosphere Packaging 365
Freezing and Frozen Storage 366
Preservation by Heat Treatments 367
Technological Fundamentals 367
Thermobacteriology 369
Calculating Heat Processes for Foods 374
Microwave Heat Treatment 375
Preservation by Irradiation 375
UV Radiation 375
Ionizing Radiation 375
Microbiological Fundamentals 376
Technological Fundamentals 378
Consumer Acceptance of Food Irradiation 379
Other Nonthermal Processes 381
Summary 383
Suggested reading 383
Questions for critical thought 383
26 Industrial Strategies for Ensuring Safe Food 387
Introduction 387
GMPs 387
General Provisions （Subpart A） 388
Buildings and Facilities （Subpart B） 388
Equipment （Subpart C） 389
Production and Process Controls （Subpart E） 389
DALs （Subpart G） 390
Sanitation 390
SSOPs 393
HACCP 394
Conclusion 401
Summary 401
Suggested reading 401
Questions for critical thought 402
Glossary 403
Answers to Puzzles 409
Index 413