1 INTRODUCTION 1
Science and Research, 1
Limits and Horizons for Research in Criminology, 3
Principles Guiding the Researcher, 5
Criminology as Part of the Social Sciences, 5
Research Terminology, 13
Beginning the Research Study, 15
Appendix to Chapter 1： The Schools of Criminology, 24
2 BEGINNING RESEARCH： THE TOPIC,APPLICATION, AND PRESENTATION 25
Topic Research, 25
Searching for Topic Material, 26
The Nature of Research, 30
An Example of Topic Selection, 34
Writing a Proposal, 39
The Final Report, 42
Using a Resource Bibliography, 44
A Short Resource Bibliography for Criminology, 46
Readings in Criminology Topics, 49
Further Aids to Research and Research Writing, 52
3 VARIABLES IN RESEARCH DESIGN 54
Defining Variables, 54
Measuring Variables, 55
Types of Variable Analysis, 59
Variables as the Key to Research Design, 62
Statistical Notation for Variables, 70
4 THE HYPOTHESIS： CONCEPT AND PRACTICE 77
Making a Research Statement, 77
The Research Hypothesis, 79
The Null Hypothesis, 84
Applying Hypotheses to Actual Research, 91
Why Use Hypotheses and Format?, 96
5 OTHER METHODS, TRIANGULATION, AND VALIDITY 101
Methods and Validity, 101
Nonreactive Measures, 104
Triangulation-Precision in Use of Research Methods, 113
The Uses of Other Methods for Problem Solving, 117
6 DESIGN AND DATA 124
Selection of a Research Design, 124
Research Design with Assigned Variables, 125
Data, 130
7 THE INSTRUMENT, THE SAMPLE, AND THE METHOD 148
Question Design, 150
Obtaining the Sample, 156
Sampling Methods, 161
Errors in Survey Research-The Method Itself, 165
The World of Nonresponse, 169
8 CODING, THE PROGRAM, AND THE PRINTOUT 176
Coding, 177
Setting Up the Program, 190
The Printout, 190
Some Errors in Entering Data, 195
Keeping Track of Data, 198
Further Reading for Computer Technology, 203
9 SAMPLING THEORY AND STATISTICS 205
How to Use this Chapter, 207
Variation and Standard Deviation, 210
Standard Scores, 210
Degrees of Freedom, 213
Qualitative Data, 213
Binomial Variables, 214
Rules for BPD Sampling, 216
The Normal Curve, 218
Standard Deviation and Standard Error, 222
Points and Bands, 226
10 BIVARIATE ANALYSIS-CORRELATION,REGRESSION, AND PREDICTION 234
Correlation, 234
A Glimpse at Regression, 252
Correlation, Regression, and Prediction, 254
Causality, 258
11 CHI-SQUARE, ASSOCIATION, AND THE CAUSAL CHAIN 264
Expected and Observed Scores, 265
Formulas for Chi-Square, 267
Assumptions for Chi-Square, 269
Restrictions for Chi-Square, 269
Strength of Association for 2×2 Tables, 270
Sample Size and Chi-Square, 271
Rules for the Construction of Tables, 273
Cross-Tabulations, 278
Setting Up the Computer IBM Deck, 280
Statements from the Printout for Chi-Square, 282
Using a Calculator for Chi-Square, 284
12 USING TWO OR MORE SAMPLES IN THEORY AND PRACTICE 290
Relationships and Associations, 290
The Differences of Means, 291
Methods of Two-Sample Testing, 296
Analysis of Variance, 302
Elaboration Using Continuous Data, 305
The Functions of Statistical Sample Estimates, 306
13 USING MORE THAN TWO VARIABLES FOR ANALYSIS 315
Multivariate Analysis-Elaboration, 315
An Extension of Hypothesis Conclusions, 325
Another Look at Elaboration, 326
Using the Computer for Control Variables, 332
Finding Relationships, 333
Analysis Using SPSS, 337
14 FALLACY, ETHICS, AND ERROR 343
Kinds of Error, 343
Fallacies in Research, 344
The Ethics of Research, 354
Project Error, 357
15 COMPUTERS AND RESEARCH LOGIC 366
Programs and Languages, 366
Limits of the Computer, 369
Using Terminals On-Line, 370
Calculators and Software, 372
The Use of Computers By Law-Enforcement Agencies, 374
Methodology in Information Systems, 381
APPENDIX 1 Student’s Quick Reference Table for r, t, x2 , and F Values, 388
APPENDIX 2 Review, Rules, and Research Methods Tables, 390
APPENDIX 3 Casino Gambling Survey, 400
INDEX 407