Part Ⅰ: Introduction 1
Chapter 1: Preliminary Remarks 3
Ⅰ.Subsidies in the International Context 3
A.What is a Subsidy? 5
B.Types of Subsidies 8
1.Export Subsidies 8
2.Domestic Subsidies 9
C.Conclusion 9
Ⅱ.Scope of this Work: Subsidies in the WTO and the EC 10
Chapter 2: Economic Analysis of Subsidies 13
Ⅰ.Introduction 13
Ⅱ.Analysis of International Trade 15
A.Theory of Comparative Advantage 15
B.Theory of Proportion in Factors of Production 17
C.Economies of Scale 18
D.Imperfect Competition 19
E.Conclusion 20
Ⅲ.Effects of Subsidies on International Trade 20
A.Effects of Export Subsidies 22
B.Effects of Domestic Subsidies 26
C.Conclusion 27
Ⅳ.Effects of the Adoption of Countervailing Duties 28
Ⅴ Concluding Remarks 30
Part Ⅱ: The Regulation of Subsidies in the WTO 31
Introduction to Part Ⅱ 33
Chapter 3: Evolution of the Regulation of Subsidies in International Trade: From the GATT to the WTO 35
Ⅰ.Introduction 35
Ⅱ.Subsidies in the Havana Charter 36
A.Negotiations for the Creation of the ITO: Origins of the GATT 37
B.Regulation of Subsidies in the HC 39
C.Conclusions 41
Ⅲ.Subsidies in the GATT （1947—1979） 41
A.The GATT of 1947 42
1.GATT Negotiations 42
2.Obligations on Subsidies in the GATT 43
3.The Definition of ‘Subsidy' in the GATT of 1947 46
4.Conclusion 47
B.The Reforms of 1955 47
1.Export Subsidies 47
a） Non-Primary Products 48
b） Primary Products 49
2.Revision Clause 51
3.Conclusion 51
C.The Situation after the Reform of 1955 52
1.Notification of Subsidies 52
2.Export Subsidies for Primary Products 53
3.Export Subsidies for Non-Primary Products 57
4.The Detinition of Subsidy after the Reform of 1955 58
a） Price Support Systems 59
b） Subsidies Financed by a Non-Governmental Levy 60
c） Multiple Exchange Rates 60
d） Purpose of the Subsidy 61
e） Other Cases 61
5.Conclusions 62
Ⅳ.The Subsidies Code from the Tokyo Round of 1979 63
A.Negotiations During the Tokyo Round （1973—1979） 63
B.The Tokyo Round Subsidies Code of 1979 65
1.Track Ⅰ—Countervailing Duties 66
2.Track Ⅱ—Obligations on Subsidies 68
C.The Situation after the Reform of 1979 74
1.The Definition of ‘Subsidy' after the Tokyo Round of 1979 74
2.Situation after the Tokyo Round 76
3.Relevant Cases after the Reform of 1979 78
a） Export Subsidies for Primary Products 79
b） Export Subsidies for Non-Primary Products 81
c） Countervailing Duties 82
D.Conclusions 83
Ⅴ Negotiations in the Uruguay Round （1986—1994） 84
A.The Negotiations on Subsidies in the Uruguay Round 84
1.Definition of ‘Subsidy' 85
a） The Position of the US 86
b） The Position of the EC 86
2.The ‘Traffic Light Approach' 87
3.Other Important Issues: Trade Remedies,Sub-National Entities and Developing Countries 88
4.Negotiations on Primary Products 88
B.Proposals Made during the Negotiations 89
1.The Cartland Draft 89
2.The Dunkel Draft 90
3.The De Zeeuw Draft 92
C.Conclusions 92
Ⅵ.The Final Result: Agreements on Subsidies in the WTO 93
Ⅶ.Concluding Remarks 95
Chapter 4: The Regulation of Subsidies in the Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures 97
Ⅰ.Introduction 97
Ⅱ.Definition of ‘Subsidy': Article 1 ASCM 102
A.1 st Element: 1 st Alternative—Financial Contribution 103
1.Government or Other Public Body 103
2.Territoriality of the Measure 106
3.Exhaustive List of Cases Considered to be Financial Contributions 107
a） Direct Transfer of Funds or Potential Transfers of Funds or Liabilities 108
b） Foregoing of Government Revenue That Would Be Collected Otherwise 108
c） Provision of Goods or Services 110
d） Payments to a Funding Mechanism or Entrustment/Direction of Private Bodies 111
B.1st Element: 2nd Alternative—Income or Price Support 119
C.2nd Element: Benefit 123
D.Conclusions 128
Ⅲ.Specificity of the Measure: Article 2 of the ASCM 129
A.The Specificity Test 132
1.‘De Jure' Specificity 138
2.‘De Facto' Contingency 138
B.Specificity of Regional Subsidies 139
C.Specificity per se 140
D.Burden of Proof of Specificity 140
E.Conclusions 141
Ⅳ.Prohibited Subsidies: Article 3 of the ASCM 142
A.Export Subsidies 143
1.‘De Jure' Contingency 144
2.‘De Facto' Contingency 145
B.The Illustrative List of Export Subsidies 148
C.Domestic Content Subsidies 154
D.Conclusions 157
Ⅴ Non-Actionable Subsidies: Article 8 of the ASCM 158
A.Assistance for R.D Activities 159
B.Assistance to Disadvantaged Regions 160
C.Assistance for Adapting Infrastructures to New Environmental Requirements 161
D.Notification and the Opportunity for Appeal 162
E.Other Non-Actionable Subsidies 163
F.Conclusions 165
Ⅵ.Actionable Subsidies: Articles 5 and 6 of the ASCM 166
A.Injury to the Domestic Industry of Another Member 166
B.Nullification or Impairment of GATT Benefits 168
C.Serious Prejudice 169
1.Cases Where a Serious Prejudice is Presumed （Subsidies Prohibited Prima Facie） 170
2.Cases Where Serious Prejudice May Exist （Prohibited Subsidies） 172
a） Displacement or Impediment of Imports 172
b） Displacement or Impediment of Exports 173
c） Price Undercutting by the Subsidized Product 174
d） Increase in the World Market Share of theSubsidized Primary Product 177
D.Conclusions 177
Ⅶ.Remedies: Disputes and Countervailing Duties 178
A.Multilateral Forum: Disputes before the DSB 180
1.Procedures for the Different Categories of Subsidies 180
a） Red Category: Prohibited Subsidies （Article 4 of the ASCM） 181
b） Amber Category: Actionable Subsidies （Article 7 of the ASCM） 182
c） Green Category: Non-Actionable Subsidies （Article 9 of the ASCM） 183
2.Results of These Procedures: Withdrawal, Repayment or Removal of the Effects 184
3.Conclusion 187
B.National Forum: Countervailing Duties 187
1.Substantive Requirements 189
a） Existence of a Specific Subsidy 189
b） Material Injury to a Domestic Industry 191
c） Causal Link 192
2.Procedural Requirements 193
a） Initiation and Consultation 193
b） Calculating the Amount of Countervailing Duties 194
c） Duration and Termination of Countervailing Duties 197
d） Possibilities for Judicial Review of the Countervailing Duties 197
C.Conclusions 198
Ⅷ.Notification and Monitoring of Subsidies: The Role of the SCM Committee 199
Ⅸ.Exceptions for Developing Countries: Article 27 of the ASCM 201
A.Prohibited Subsidies 202
B.Actionable Subsidies 202
C.Countervailing Duties 204
D.Conclusions 204
Ⅹ.Concluding Remarks 204
Chapter 5: The Regulation of Subsidies in the Agreement on Agriculture 207
Ⅰ.Introduction 207
Ⅱ.The Agreement on Agriculture 208
A.Commitments on Domestic Support 209
1.Amber Basket 210
2.Blue Basket 213
3.Green Basket 214
a） General Services 215
b） Food Security Industry 215
c） Domestic Food Aid 215
d） Direct Payments to Producers 215
4.Conclusion 216
B.Commitments on Export Subsidies 217
1.Export Subsidies for Products Subject to Reduction Commitments 218
a） List of Export Subsidies （Article 9.1.of the AoA） 219
1.Direct Subsidies 219
2.Export Sales under the Domestic Market Price 220
3.Export Payments for Agricultural Products 221
4.Subsidies to Reduce Costs of Marketing or Transporting Exports 224
5.Upstream Subsidies 225
b） Other Export Subsidies （Article 10.1 of the AoA） 225
c） Conclusion 227
2.Export Subsidies for Products Not Subject to Reduction Commitments 227
3.Conclusion 230
C.Conclusions 230
Ⅲ.The Application of the ASCM to Basic Agricultural Products: The Relationship Between the ASCM and the AoA 231
A.Definition of ‘Subsidy' in the AoA 231
B.Specificity in the AoA 234
C.Conclusions 235
Ⅳ.Trade Remedies: The Expiration of the Peace Clause 235
A.The Peace Clause: Exceptions to Article 13 of the AoA 236
1.Exceptions for Domestic Support 237
2.Exceptions for Export Subsidies 238
3.Expiration of the Peace Clause: Application of the ASCM 239
B.Lack of Conformity of a Measure With the AoA: Withdrawal of the Subsidy （Article 4.7 of the ASCM） 240
C.Conclusions 242
Ⅴ.Concluding Remarks 242
Chapter 6: Subsidies in the WTO: The ‘Foreign Sales Corporations' Case 245
Ⅰ.Introduction 245
Ⅱ.The DISC Case 249
A.Group of Experts in DISC 251
B.Group of Experts in the European Cases 252
C.The Aftermath of These Cases 254
D.Conclusions 255
Ⅲ.The US—FSC Case 256
A.The FSC—First Panel and AB Reports 257
1.Measures in Relation to the FSCs 257
2.First Panel Report 260
a） EC Arguments 261
b） US Arguments 262
c） Conclusions of the Panel 264
3.First AB Report 268
4.Conclusions 270
B.The ETI—Second Panel and AB Reports 271
1.Measures Introduced by the ETI 272
2.Second Panel Report 273
3.Second AB Report 276
4.Conclusions 277
C.Developments of the FSC/ETI Case 277
Ⅳ.Conclusions from the FSC Case 280
Part Ⅲ: EC Rules on State Aids 283
Introduction to Part Ⅲ 285
Chapter 7: Evolution of the State Aid Rules in the EC 287
Ⅰ.Introduction 287
Ⅱ State Aids in the History of the EC 291
A.Rules on State Aids: From ECSC to EEC 292
B.Evolution of the Rules on State Aids After the EECTreaty 293
C.Conclusions 296
Ⅲ.State Aids Nowadays: Statistics 296
Ⅳ.Concluding Remarks 303
Chapter 8: The Notion of ‘State Aid': Article 87.1 of the EC Treaty 305
Ⅰ.Introduction 305
Ⅱ.The Notion of ‘Aid in Any Form' 307
A.Examples of Advantages Granted by the State 309
1.Participation in the Capital of Enterprises 309
2.Loans 310
3.Government Guarantees 311
4.Sale of Public Goods 311
5.Acquisition of Products or Services by the State 312
6.Provision of Public Services by the State 312
7.Conclusions 314
B.Intention of the Government When Granting the Measure 314
C.Indirect Advantages 315
D.Form of the Aid 315
Ⅲ.Granted by a Member State or through State Resources 315
A.The Meaning of ‘State' 316
B.Notion of ‘State Resources' 318
C.Aids ‘Granted by the Member States or through State Resources' 321
D.Conclusions 327
Ⅳ.Distortion in Competition: Selectivity 327
A.Distortion in Competition 328
B.Selectivity of the Measure 330
C.Conclusions 336
Ⅴ Effect on Trade between Member States 336
Ⅵ.Concluding Remarks 338
Chapter 9: State Aids Compatible with the Common Market 341
Ⅰ.Introduction 341
Ⅱ.State Aids per se Compatible with the Common Market 342
A.Aids with Social Character 343
B.Aids to Repair Damages Caused by Natural Disasters 344
C.Aids to Certain Regions of the Federal Republic of Germany 344
D.Conclusions 345
Ⅲ.State Aids Which May be Compatible with the Common Market 346
A.Aids to Improve the Development of Certain Regions Where the Standards of Living are Abnormally Lowor Where There is a Serious Unemployment Situation 350
B.Aids for Projects of Common European Interest or to Remedy a Serious Disturbance in the Economy of a Member State 353
C.Aids to Promote the Development of Certain Activities or Regions: Sectoral, Horizontal and Regional Aids 355
1.Regional Aids in Article 87.3（c） of the EC Treaty 356
2.Sectoral Aids 359
a） Transport 361
b） Motor Vehicles 363
c） Steel and Coal 364
3.Horizontal Aids 365
a） Aids for the Protection of the Environment 365
b） Aids for R&D 366
c） Aids for Employment and Training 368
d） Aid for SMEs 370
e） Aids for Rescuing and Restructuring Companies in Crisis 371
D.Aids to Promote Culture 374
E.Aids Authorized by the Council 375
Ⅳ.Conclusions 377
Chapter 10: Procedural Issues: Control of State Aids in the EC and Recovery of State Aids 379
Ⅰ.Introduction 379
Ⅱ.Procedures to Control State Aids in the EC 380
A.State Aid Control by the European Commission 380
1.Notified Aids 381
2.Non-Notified （Unlawful） Aids 387
3.Control of Existing Aids 389
B.Appeals before the CFI/ECJ on State Aids 390
1.Commission Decisions Subject to Appeal 391
2.Types of Actions and Locus Standi 391
3.Review by the ECJ 394
4.Consequences of the Review 396
C.Role of National Courts in the Control of State Aids 396
D.Conclusions 400
Ⅲ.Remedies—Recovery of State Aids 401
A.Powers of the European Commission in State Aids:Suspension, Modification or Recovery 401
B.Exceptions on the Recovery of State Aids 403
C.Calculation of the Amount of Aid to be Recovered 404
D.Subjects Obliged to Return the Aid 406
E.Conclusions 406
Ⅳ Concluding Remarks 407
ChapterⅡ: Agricultural Subsidies in the EC 409
Ⅰ.Introduction 409
Ⅱ.State Aids to Agricultural Products 410
Ⅲ.The CAP: Agricultural Subsidies in the EC 413
A.The CAP in the EC Treaty: Objectives 414
B.CMOs: Types of Subsidies for Agricultural Goods in the EC 416
1.Price Support through Regulation of the Markets 416
2.Income Support: Production Subsidies 417
3.Storage Systems and Compensation for Remnants 417
4.Common Mechanisms for the Stabilization of Imports and Exports 418
5.CAP Funding: EAGGF 418
C.The Reform of the CAP 420
Ⅳ.Concluding Remarks 423
Part Ⅳ: Comparative Analysis of the Regulation of Subsidies in the WTO and the EC: Consequences 425
Introduction to Part Ⅳ 427
Chapter 12: Comparison of the WTO and EC Rules on Subsidies and State Aids 429
Ⅰ.Introduction 429
Ⅱ.Systemic Approach to Disciplining Subsidies 430
A.Analysis of National Measures in the WTO 431
1.Framework of the ASCM 432
2.Framework of the AoA 433
B.Analysis of Government Measures in the EC 435
C.Notification and Control of Subsidies and State Aids 437
D.Conclusions 439
Ⅲ.Definition of ‘Subsidy' versus Notion of ‘State Aid' 440
A.Origin of the Measure: Government versus State 440
B.Benefit versus Aid 442
C.Nature of the Resources Used 443
1.FSC versus Sloman Neptun 446
2.Canada—Aircraft and US—Export Restraints versus PreussenElektra 448
3.Price Fixing Systems 449
D.Conclusions 449
Ⅳ.Specificity versus Selectivity 450
A.The Term ‘Certain' 451
B.Undertakings and Industries/Productions 452
C.Measures Granted by Sub-National Entities 454
D.Conclusions 455
Ⅴ.Prohibitions and Exceptions in the WTO and the EC 455
A.Red Category—Prohibited Subsidies and Aids Incompatible with the Common Market 456
1.Export Subsidies 458
2.Import SubstitutionlDomestic Content Subsidies 461
3.Conclusion 463
B.Green Category—Permitted Subsidies and Aids Compatible with the Common Market 463
1.Aid for R&D 464
2.Aid for Underdeveloped Regions 466
3.Aid for the Adaptation of Existing Facilities to New Environmental Requirements 468
4.Conclusion 469
C.Amber Category—Actionable Subsidies and AidsWhich May be Compatible with the Common Market 469
1.The Adverse Effects Standard 470
2.The Compensatory Justification Standard （Community Interest） 472
3.Comparison of Both Standards 473
D.Conclusions 474
Ⅵ.Remedies: Withdrawal of the Subsidy versus Recovery of the Aid 475
A.Remedies at the Multilateral Level: Withdrawal of Prohibited Subsidies versus Recovery of Unlawful Aid 476
B.Coercive Means of Enforcement 478
C.Remedies at the National Level: The Role of Individuals 480
D.Conclusions 481
Ⅶ.Reasons for the Differences between the WTO and the EC 482
A.Scope and Systemic Approach 483
B.Definitions of ‘Subsidy' and ‘State Aid' 484
C.Prohibited and Permitted Government Measures 486
D.Control and Remedies 487
E.Conclusions 489
Ⅷ.Concluding Remarks 490
Chapter 13: Conformity of the EC State Aid Rules With the WTO: Suggestions 493
Ⅰ.Introduction 493
Ⅱ.Conformity of State Aids With the WTO Rules on Subsidies: Conflicts 495
A.Scope of the Regulation: Subsidy versus State Aid 495
B.Objectives of the Regulation: Adverse Effects on Trade versus Community Objectives 496
C.Conclusion: Lack of Conformity 499
Ⅲ.A Different Case: Conformity of Agricultural Subsidies in the EC with the AoA 499
A.Domestic Support 500
B.Export Subsidies 501
C.Other Issues: Expiration of the Peace Clause 502
D.The AoA in the EC Legal System 502
E.Negotiations on Agriculture in the Doha Round 502
F.Conclusions 503
Ⅳ Consequences of the Lack of Conformity 504
A.Consequences for the EC and the Member State 505
1.Government Measure = Subsidy ≠ State Aid 505
a） Multilateral Level—WTO 506
（i） Distribution of Competences with Respect to the WTO Agreements 506
（ii） The Dispute Settlement System in Practice: Representation on Behalf of the EC 509
（iii） Retaliatory Actions: The Requirement of Uniformity in the Action 511
（iv） Conclusions: Joint Responsibility of the EC and the Member State 512
（v） Consequences for the EC and the Member State Derived from the ASCM 513
b） Community Level—EC 513
c） Conclusions 515
2.Government Measure = Subsidy = Authorized State Aid 516
a） Multilateral Level WTO 516
b） Community Level—EC 519
c） Conclusions 520
B.Consequences for Individuals 520
1.Government Measure = Subsidy = Authorized State Aid 521
2.Government Measure = Subsidy State Aid 526
3.Conclusion 527
C.Conclusions 527
Ⅴ.Suggestions: Ways to Improve the Conformity of the EC Rules on State Aids with the WTO 528
A.Modification of the Notion of ‘State Aid' 529
B.The Community Interest ‘Plus' Standard 531
C.Indirect Effect of the Provisions of the ASCM 532
D.Conclusions 532
Ⅵ.Concluding Remarks 533
Chapter 14: Final Remarks 535
Ⅰ.Introduction 535
Ⅱ.Main Conclusions of This Work 536
Ⅲ.Subsidies in an International Context: Reflections and Room for Improvement 548
Ⅳ.Conclusion: A Look into the Future 555
Table of Cases 559
Ⅰ.GATT/WTO 559
A.GATT 559
B.WTO 560
Ⅱ.EC 563
A.ECJ 563
B.CFI 567
Bibliography 569
Index 581