1 The History and Sources of the International Law of the Sea 1
Ⅰ.Introduction 1
Ⅱ.Historical Development of the International Law of the Sea 2
A.The Grotian View of the Oceans 3
B.The Freedom of the Sea and Territorial Sea Claims 4
C.1930 Hague Conference 4
D.Truman Proclamation 5
Ⅲ.Work of the International Law Commission 6
Ⅳ.The First United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea and the Geneva Conventions 6
Ⅴ.The Second United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea 9
Ⅵ.The Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea 10
A.Claims to New Maritime Zones in the 1960s 10
B.The Regime of the Deep Seabed 11
C.UNCLOS Ⅲ Conference Dynamics 12
D.The United States Position on Common Heritage and the Deep Seabed 14
Ⅶ.The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 14
A.Core Provisions 15
B.Entry into Force 18
C.1994 Implementing Agreement 18
D.1995 Fish Stocks Agreement 19
Ⅷ.Institutional Frameworks 20
Ⅸ.Sources of the International Law of the Sea 22
A.Customary International Law 22
B.Treaties and Conventions 22
C.Unilateral Declarations 23
D.Subsidiary Sources of Law 24
E.Soft Law 24
Ⅹ.Challenges for the International Law of the Sea 25
A.Climate Change 25
B.Marine Environmental Security 26
C.Creeping Jurisdiction 27
Ⅺ.Review and Reform of the International Law of the Sea 27
Ⅻ.Further Reading 29
2 Coastal Waters 30
Ⅰ.Introduction 30
Ⅱ.History 31
Ⅲ.Baselines 33
A.The Anglo-Norwegian Fisheries Case 33
B.International Law Commission 34
i.International Law Commission Draft Articles 35
C.UNCLOSI 36
D.Convention on the Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone 37
E.Post-UNCLOS I State Practice 39
F.LOSC 40
Ⅳ.Key Issues in the Delimitation of Coastal Waters 42
A.Low-water 42
B.Straight Baselines 43
C.Low-tide Elevation 45
D.Juridical Bays 46
E.Historic Bays 47
F.Contemporary State Practice 50
Ⅴ.Internal Waters 52
A.Views of the ILC 52
B.Convention on the Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone 52
C.LOSC 53
D.State Practice 54
i.Territorial Sovereign Rights and Internal Waters 54
ii.Port Access 55
iii.Jurisdiction over Foreign Ships in Port 56
Ⅵ.Further Reading 57
3 Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone 58
Ⅰ.Introduction 58
Ⅱ.Territorial Sea in Customary International Law 59
Ⅲ.Codification of the Territorial Sea 61
A.The Views of the International Associations 61
B.International Law Commission 62
C.UNCLOSI 63
D.Convention on the Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone 64
E.UNCLOSII 66
F.State Practice 67
Ⅳ.UNCLOS Ⅲ and the LOSC 69
Ⅴ.Contemporary Territorial Sea in State Practice 71
A.Breadth of the Territorial Sea 71
B.Sovereignty and Jurisdiction 73
C.Innocent and Transit Passage 76
Ⅵ.Contiguous Zone 77
A.ILC 77
B.UNCLOS Ⅰ and the Geneva Convention 78
C.UNCLOS Ⅲ and the LOSC 79
D.State Practice 79
Ⅶ.Further Reading 81
4 The Exclusive Economic Zone 82
Ⅰ.Introduction 82
Ⅱ.The Concept of the EEZ 83
Ⅲ.Breadth of the EEZ and its Relationship with Other Maritime Zones 85
Ⅳ.Coastal State Rights and Obligations in the EEZ 87
A.Sovereign Rights 88
i.Living Resources 88
ii.Non-Living Resources 89
B.Jurisdictional Rights 90
i.Artificial Islands,Installations and Structures 90
ii.Marine Scientific Research 91
iii.Marine Environmental Protection 92
Ⅴ.Rights and Duties of Other States in the EEZ 92
A.Navigation and Overflight 93
i.Environmental Security 94
ii.Military Security 95
B.Submarine Cables and Pipelines 96
Ⅵ.Future Developments 96
Ⅶ.Further Reading 97
5 The Continental Shelf 98
Ⅰ.Introduction 98
Ⅱ.The Truman Proclamation 100
Ⅲ.UNCLOS I and the Geneva Convention 102
A.Work of the International Law Commission 102
B.The Convention on the Continental Shelf 104
C.North Sea Continental Shelf Cases 106
Ⅳ.UNCLOS Ⅲ 107
Ⅴ.LOSC 109
A.Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf 111
B.Rights and Duties of Coastal and Other States 117
C.Relationship with the EEZ Regime 118
Ⅵ.Further Reading 119
6 The Deep Seabed 120
Ⅰ.Introduction 120
Ⅱ.The Deep Seabed:Environment and Resources 121
Ⅲ.Early Debates:Sedentary Fisheries and the Deep Seabed 125
Ⅳ.The Moratorium Resolution and Principles Resolution 127
Ⅴ.UNCLOS Ⅲ 129
A.Reciprocating States Regime 132
Ⅵ.The LOSC and 1994 Agreement 133
A.The Main Revisions in the 1994 Agreement 134
Ⅶ.The International Seabed Authority and the Seabed Mining System 136
A.The ISBA 136
i.The Assembly 137
ii.The Council 138
iii.Recent Activities of the ISBA and the Mining Code 138
B.Main Elements of the Deep Seabed Mining Regime 141
Ⅷ.Further Reading 144
7 High Seas 145
Ⅰ.Introduction 145
A.The High Seas as a Managed Common Area 146
Ⅱ.Historical Development of the High Seas 147
A.Pre-Grotian Freedoms of the High Seas 147
B.Grotian Vision of the High Seas 147
C.High Seas in Customary International Law 148
i.Jurisdiction over Vessels on the High Seas 149
Ⅲ.Codification of the High Seas Regime 151
A.Pre-Geneva Codifications 151
B.Work of the ILC 152
C.UNCLOS Ⅰ 152
D.UNCLOS Ⅲ 153
Ⅳ.The LOSC and the High Seas 154
A.Freedom of the High Seas 155
i.Freedom of Navigation 155
ii.Freedom of Overflight 156
iii.Freedom to Lay Submarine Cables and Pipelines 156
iv.Freedom to Construct Artificial Islands and other Installations 156
v.Freedom of Fishing 157
vi.Freedom of Scientific Research 158
B.Shipping 158
i.Nationality of Ships 159
ii.Duties of the Flag State 160
iii.Immunities 160
iv.Collisions 161
v.Assistance to Persons at Sea 161
C.Prohibitions 162
i.Piracy 162
ii.Slavery 164
iii.Drug Trafficking 165
iv.Unauthorised Broadcasting 165
D.Enforcement 166
E.Conservation and Management of Living Resources 167
F.Relationship with Other Maritime Zones 168
Ⅴ.Further Reading 169
8 Archipelagic States 170
Ⅰ.Archipelagos and International Law 170
Ⅱ.Early Codifications 172
Ⅲ.UNCLOS I 173
Ⅳ.The Indonesian and Philippines Claims 175
A.Indonesia 175
B.The Philippines 177
Ⅴ.UNCLOS Ⅲ 179
Ⅵ.The LOSC and Archipelagic States 181
A.Archipelagic States 181
B.Archipelagic Baselines 183
C.The Legal Status of Archipelagic Waters 185
D.Archipelagic State Practice 186
i.Proclaimed Archipelagic States 187
ii.Archipelagic State Rights over Archipelagic Waters 188
Ⅶ.Further Reading 189
9 Landlocked and Geographically Disadvantaged States 190
Ⅰ.Introduction 190
Ⅱ.Landlocked States and Access to the Sea 193
A.Early Developments 193
B.UNCLOS I 194
C.Post-UNCLOS Ⅰ Developments 195
D.The LOSC 196
Ⅲ.Landlocked States and Rights of Navigation 199
Ⅳ.Landlocked and Geographically Disadvantaged States and Marine Resources 200
A.Living Resources of the EEZ 201
B.Living Resources of the High Seas 203
C.Mineral Resources of the Area 203
D.Marine Scientific Research and Transfer of Marine Technology 204
Ⅴ.Further Reading 204
10 Navigational Rights and Freedoms 205
Ⅰ.Freedom of the Seas and Navigational Rights and Freedoms 205
A.Traditional Interests 205
B.Contemporary Interests 206
Ⅱ.Customary International Law Prior to UNCLOS I 207
A.Early State Practice 207
B.The Corfu Channel Case 209
Ⅲ.UNCLOS Ⅰ and the Geneva Conventions 210
A.The Work of the International Law Commission 210
B.UNCLOS Ⅰ 211
Ⅳ UNCLOS Ⅲ and the LOSC 213
Ⅴ.Territorial Sea 214
A.Coastal State Rights in the Territorial Sea 214
B.The Right of Innocent Passage 215
C.Coastal State Rights and Duties Regarding Innocent Passage 218
i.Prevention of Passage 218
ii.Regulation of Passage 219
iii.Obligation not to Hamper Innocent Passage 220
iv.Sea Lanes and Traffic Separation Schemes 221
D.The Rights of Foreign Flagged Vessels 221
E.Warships 222
F.Nuclear Vessels and Vessels Carrying Hazardous Substances 223
G.Vessels in Distress 224
Ⅵ.High Seas 224
Ⅶ.Exclusive Economic Zone 227
Ⅷ.Further Reading 229
11 International Straits and Archipelagic Navigation 230
Ⅰ.Recognising Rights of Navigation through Straits 230
A.The Corfu Channel Case 231
B.The ILC and UNCLOS I 232
Ⅱ.UNCLOS Ⅲ Deliberations and the LOSC 234
A.The Straits Regime 235
B.The Archipelagic Regime 235
Ⅲ.International Straits 236
A.Categories of Straits 237
B.The Regime of Transit Passage 239
i.The Act of Transit 239
ii.Duties of Ships and Aircraft in Transit 240
iii.Obligations of Strait States 241
iv.Regulation of Transit Passage 242
v.Enforcement of Strait State Laws and Regulations 242
C.Navigation in Specific International Straits 244
i.Turkish Straits 244
ii.Strait of Gibraltar 245
iii.Straits of Malacca and Singapore 246
iv.Torres Strait 247
Ⅳ Archipelagic Navigation 248
A.Innocent Passage within Archipelagic Waters 249
B.Archipelagic Sea Lanes Passage 250
i.Navigation in the 'Normal Mode' 251
ii.Navigation within Archipelagic Sea Lanes 251
iii.Designation of Archipelagic Sea Lanes 252
iv.Obligations while Undertaking Archipelagic Sea Lanes Passage 253
v.Obligations of the Archipelagic State 254
C.State Practice Designating Archipelagic Sea Lanes 255
Ⅴ.Further Reading 257
12 Military Uses of the Oceans 258
Ⅰ.Introduction 258
Ⅱ.Historical Overview 259
Ⅲ.International Law and Naval Operations 260
A.Law of Naval Warfare 260
B.United Nations-Sanctioned Naval Operations 262
Ⅳ.Codification of the Law of the Sea 263
A.Work of the International Law Commission 264
B.UNCLOS Ⅰ and the Geneva Conventions 265
C.UNCLOS Ⅲ and the LOSC 265
Ⅴ.Navigational Rights and Freedoms 267
A.Innocent Passage by Warships 268
B.Transit Passage by Warships 271
C.Archipelagic Sea Lanes Passage by Warships 274
D.EEZ Navigation by Warships 275
i.Military Survey Activities 275
Ⅵ.Naval Operations at Sea 276
A.United Nations Sanctioned Interdictions 276
B.Proliferation Security Initiative 278
C.Weapons Testing and Military Manoeuvres 279
D.Demilitarised and Nuclear Free Zones 281
Ⅶ.Overflight by Military Aircraft 282
Ⅷ.Further Reading 284
13 Marine Resource Management 285
Ⅰ.Introduction 285
Ⅱ.Non-Living Marine Resources 287
A.Resource Potential 287
B.Internal Waters and Territorial Sea 288
C.Continental Shelf and Exclusive Economic Zone 288
D.The High Seas and Deep Seabed 289
E.Joint Development 290
Ⅲ.Living Resources 292
A.Fisheries and the 'Tragedy of the Commons' 292
B.Pre LOSC Developments 292
C.1958 Geneva Conventions 295
D.LOSC Regime 297
i.Internal Waters,the Territorial Sea and Archipelagic Waters 298
ii.Exclusive Economic Zone 298
iii.Shared Stocks 303
iv.Continental Shelf 303
v.The High Seas 303
vi.Deep Seabed 306
E.Species-Specific Rules 307
i.Highly Migratory Species 307
ii.Marine Mammals 308
iii.Anadromous Species 310
iv.Catadromous Species 311
F.Post-LOSC Developments 311
i.High Seas Fishing 312
ii.Fish Stocks Agreement 315
Ⅳ.Further Reading 319
14 Marine Scientific Research 320
Ⅰ.Introduction 320
Ⅱ.Development of the Regime for Marine Scientific Research 321
A.Early History of Marine Scientific Research 321
B.Marine Scientific Research and North-South Tensions in the Post-WW Ⅱ Period 322
C.The Pre-LOSC Regime for Marine Scientific Research 323
Ⅲ.The LOSC Regime for Marine Scientific Research 324
A.General Provisions 324
B.Internal Waters,Archipelagic Waters and the Territorial Sea 327
C.Continental Shelf and Exclusive Economic Zone 327
i.Hydrographic Surveying 330
ii.Scientific Research Installations and Equipment 331
D.High Seas 333
E.Deep Seabed 333
Ⅳ.Marine Scientific Research under Other Regimes 334
Ⅴ.Coastal State Legislation concerning Marine Scientific Research 335
Ⅵ.Future Developments 336
Ⅶ.Further Reading 337
15 Marine Environmental Protection 338
Ⅰ.Introduction 338
Ⅱ.Sources and Type of Marine Pollution 339
Ⅲ.The Legal Framework:LOSC and Regional Treaties 342
A.LOSC 342
B.Regional Treaties 344
Ⅳ.Operational Vessel-Source Pollution 347
A.Operational and Accidental Vessel Pollution Distinguished 347
B.LOSC and the IMO 347
C.International Standards 348
D.The MARPOL Jurisdictional Framework 353
i.Flag States 353
ii.Port States 353
E.The LOSC Jurisdictional Framework 355
i.Flag States 355
ii.Port States 355
iii.Coastal States 356
iv.Enforcement Jurisdiction 358
Ⅴ.Accidental Vessel-Source Pollution 359
A.Safety of Shipping 359
i.SOLAS 359
ii.Qualifications and Working Conditions for Seafarers 361
iii.Preventing Collisions at Sea 362
Ⅵ.Pollution Emergencies 362
A.Responding to Pollution Emergencies 363
B.Coastal State Rights of Intervention 364
C.The Role of Salvors 365
Ⅶ.Liability for Vessel-Source Pollution 365
A.State Responsibility 365
B.Civil Liability 366
i.Liability for Oil Pollution Damage 366
ii.1992 Civil Liability Convention 367
iii.The 1992 Fund Convention 369
iv.Liability for Other Pollution Damage 370
Ⅷ.Seabed Pollution 371
A.Territorial Sea,EEZ and Continental Shelf 371
Ⅸ.Dumping at Sea 373
A.1972 London Convention 374
B.1996 Protocol 374
C.Jurisdiction and Enforcement 376
D.Ship Scrapping and Recycling 377
E.Regional Agreements 378
Ⅹ.Land-Based and Atmospheric Pollution 378
A.1995 Global Programme of Action 380
Ⅺ.Further Reading 382
16 Delimitation of Maritime Boundaries 383
Ⅰ.Introduction 383
A.Grisbadarna Arbitration 384
B.Influence of Boggs 385
Ⅱ.Work of the International Law Commission 386
Ⅲ.Codification of the Law 387
A.Convention on the Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone 387
B.Convention on the Continental Shelf 388
Ⅳ Early Cases 389
A.North Sea Continental Shelf Cases 389
B.Anglo-French Arbitration 390
Ⅴ.LOSC 391
Ⅵ.The ICJ and Maritime Boundary Delimitation 393
Ⅶ.Principles of Maritime Boundary Delimitation 397
A.Delimitation Methodology 397
i.Territorial Sea 398
ii.EEZ/Continental Shelf/Single Maritime Boundary 398
B.Territorial Sea Delimitations 399
C.Equitable Solution/Equitable Result 401
D.Equidistance and Median Lines 401
E.Relevant and Special Circumstances 402
i.Special Circumstances 403
ii.Relevant Circumstances 404
iii.Islands 404
iv.Fishing 406
v.Oil Concessions 407
F.Single Maritime Boundaries 407
Ⅷ.Maritime Boundary Delimitation by Agreement 408
A.Settled Maritime Boundaries 408
B.Joint Development Zones 409
Ⅸ.Further Reading 411
17 Maritime Regulation and Enforcement 412
Ⅰ.Introduction 412
Ⅱ.International Law Regarding Enforcement Powers at Sea 414
A.Hot Pursuit 415
i.Case Law 416
ii.State Practice 416
iii.Multilateral Hot Pursuit 417
B.Use of Force 418
i.LOSC and Use of Force 419
ii.General Principles Regarding the Use of Force at Sea During Peacetime 420
Ⅲ.Enforcement Operations within Particular Maritime Zones 422
A.Internal Waters 423
B.Territorial Sea 424
i.Criminal Jurisdiction 425
ii.Civil Jurisdiction 425
iii.Territorial Sea of an International Strait 425
C.Archipelagic Waters 426
D.Contiguous Zone 427
E.EEZ 428
i.Matters Subject to EEZ Sovereign Rights 429
ii.Matters Subject to EEZ Jurisdiction 430
F.Continental Shelf 431
G.High Seas 431
Ⅳ.Specialist Regimes Relating to Maritime Regulation and Enforcement 432
A.Piracy 432
B.Maritime Terrorism and Related Unlawful Acts 434
C.Fisheries 435
D.Transnational Crime 436
Ⅴ.Further Reading 438
18 Dispute Settlement in the Law of the Sea 439
Ⅰ.Introduction 439
Ⅱ.Dispute Settlement in International Law:General Mechanisms 440
Ⅲ.Dispute Settlement in the Law of the Sea:Pre-LOSC Developments 442
A.ILC Draft Articles on the Law of the Sea 443
B.UNCLOS Ⅰ 444
C.UNCLOS Ⅲ 445
Ⅳ.Dispute Settlement under the LOSC 445
A.Jurisdictional Conditions 445
B.Compulsory Dispute Settlement 448
i.Applicable Law 452
ii.Provisional Measures 452
iii.Prompt Release 453
C.Jurisdictional Limitations and Exceptions 454
D.ITLOS 456
Ⅴ.Further Reading 460
19 Oceans Governance 461
Ⅰ.Introduction 461
Ⅱ.The Concept of Oceans Governance 462
A.Government and Governance Distinguished 462
B.The Ecosystem Approach and Area-Based Management 462
C.Area-Based Tools for Marine Management 465
D.Transparent and Participatory Decision-Making Processes 467
E.Scientific and Other Cross-Disciplinary Influences 468
F.Normative Influences on Oceans Governance 469
Ⅲ.The Global Legal Framework for Oceans Governance 470
Ⅳ.The Policy Framework for Oceans Governance 473
Ⅴ.Norms and Principles of Oceans Governance 474
Ⅵ.Institutions for Oceans Governance 478
Ⅶ.Regional,Sub-regional and National Oceans Governance 482
A.UNEP Regional Seas Programme 482
B.European Union 483
C.Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation 484
Ⅷ.Further Reading 485
Index 487