Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1.1. Background and Objective 2
1.2. Problem Definition 3
1.3. Outline and Methodology 3
1.4. Scope 5
Chapter 2 Interfaces and Interoperability in Context 7
2.1. Software, Interfaces and Interoperability 8
2.1.1. Interoperability and Interdependency 8
2.1.2. Technology and Terminology 11
a. Software 11
b. Interoperability 13
2.2. Effects of Interoperability 21
2.2.1. Interfaces and Interoperability 21
2.2.2. Horizontal Effects of Interoperability 22
a. Interoperability and Network Effects 22
b. Types of Network Effects 25
c. Standardization and Variety 27
d. Competition, Innovation and Market Power 31
2.2.3. Vertical Effects of Interoperability 37
a. Systems or Components Innovation 37
b. Controlling Secondary Markets 39
2.2.4. Openness Versus Control of Interfaces 43
2.3. Flexibility Versus Certainty 46
2.4. Conclusion 47
Chapter 3 Copyright Law 51
3.1. Copyright and Control of Interface Information 52
3.1.1. Use 53
a. Copyright Protection of Functional Expression 53
b. Copyright and Standardization 61
3.1.2. Access 67
a. Object Code and Source Code 67
b. Reverse Engineering and Reproduction 68
c. Copyright as an Exclusive Right 71
3.1.3. Conclusion 72
3.2. Interoperability Under the Software Directive 73
3.2.1. Use 74
a. Idea/Expression 74
b. Originality 78
c. Conclusion 80
3.2.2 Access 81
a. Two Forms of Reverse Engineering 82
b. Reverse Engineering and Negotiations 84
c. Systematic Difficulties 86
d. Current Challenges 89
3.3. Conclusion 91
Chapter 4 Competition Law 95
4.1. Competition Law and the Software Directive 96
4.1.1. EU Law Perspective 97
4.1.2. Economic Perspective 99
a. Substantive: Complementary Goals 99
b. Instrumental: ex-ante versus ex-post 103
c. Resolving Tensions 108
d. Application to Control Over Standards and Interface Specifications 113
4.1.3. Conclusion 117
4.2. Refusals to Supply Interface Information 119
4.2.1. Competition Law and Control of Interface Information 119
a. European Competition Law and Essential Facilities 120
b. Criticism of the Essential Facilities Doctrine 122
c. Concretization in the Case Law 125
4.2.2. Application to Interface Specifications 132
a. Competition in or for the Market 133
b. Balancing Incentives to Innovate and Free Competition 139
4.3. Conclusion 147
Chapter 5 Ex-Ante Interconnection Rules 151
5.1. Design Protection 153
5.1.1. Openness Versus Control 154
a. Must-Fit Parts 154
b. Must-Match Parts 155
5.1.2. Flexibility Versus Certainty 159
5.1.3. Instruments 162
a. Protection of Functional Designs and Promotion of Variety 162
b. Must-Fit Parts 166
c. Must-Match Parts 168
5.2. Telecommunications 170
5.2.1. Openness Versus Control 172
a. Controlled Access and Monopoly Regulation 173
b. Open Access and Competition in the Market 174
5.2.2. Flexibility Versus Certainty 177
a. Interconnection and Incumbents 178
b. Interconnection and Any-to-Any Connectivity 183
5.2.3. Instruments 185
a. Regulatory Framework 186
b. Interconnection Negotiations 186
c. Intervention by NRA 187
d. Reference Offer 189
5.3. Conclusion 190
Chapter 6 Conclusion: Rethinking the Interface 195
6.1. Openness Versus Control 196
6.2. Flexibility Versus Certainty 201
6.3. Instruments within Copyright Law 204
6.3.1 Use 204
a. Interfaces under a Subject Matter Approach 205
b. Standardization 214
c. Exclusion or Limitation for Interface Specifications 217
6.3.2. Access 223
a. Narrower Reproduction Right 223
b. More Flexible Approach to Reverse Engineering 226
c. Affirmative Disclosure Requirements 233
6.4. Instruments within Competition Law 238
6.5. Outlook 242
Appendix 245
Bibliography 247
Index 285