Chapter 1Introduction 1
Chapter 2The Burden of Proof Concept 9
2.1 Introduction 9
2.2 The Law and the Facts 10
2.2.1 Legal Consequences Attached to Facts 10
2.2.2 Abstract and Concrete Legal Facts 11
2.2.3 Evidentiary Facts 13
2.2.4 Questions of Law and Questions of Fact 13
2.2.5 Who Should Provide Answers to Questions of Law？ 15
2.2.5.1 The Principle Jura Novit Curia 15
2.2.5.2 The Prohibition of Non Liquet 16
2.2.6 Who Should Provide Answers to Questions of Fact？ 17
2.3 The Establishment of the Factum Probandum 18
2.3.1 A Probabilistic Approach 18
2.3.2 The Persuasive Burden 19
2.3.3 The Standard of Proof 21
2.3.4 Arguments for Allocating the Persuasive Burden to a Certain Party and for Applying a Certain Standard of Proof 23
2.3.4.1 Reducing the Risk of Erroneous Outcomes 23
2.3.4.2 Type I and Type Ⅱ Errors 24
2.3.4.3 Four Categories of Arguments 26
2.3.5 Evidence and the Burden to Prove Evidentiary Facts 29
2.3.6 The Evaluation of Evidence and the Tactical Burden 30
2.3.7 The Original Probability 31
2.3.8 Presumptions 33
2.3.9 Prima Facie Evidence 36
2.3.10 The Standard of Review 39
2.4 The Principle Actori Incumbit Probatio 41
2.4.1 General Burden of Proof Principles 41
2.4.2 How to Apply the Principle Actori Incumbit Probatio 42
2.4.3 General Rules and Exceptions 45
2.4.4 Arguments for Allocating the Burden to the Claimant under General Rules 48
2.4.5 Arguments for Allocating the Burden to the Defendant under Exceptions 51
2.4.6 Arguments for Allocating the Burden to the Claimant under Exceptions and to the Defendant under General Rules 52
2.5 The Health Risk as a Factum Probandum 53
2.5.1 Two Layers of Uncertainty 53
2.5.2 The Definition of Risk 54
2.5.3 Risk and Uncertainty 55
2.5.4 Analysing Uncertainty 56
2.5.5 Risk Assessment and Risk Management 57
2.5.6 Uncertainty Related to the Health Risk and Uncertainty Related to the Standard of Proof 58
2.6 Summary and Conclusions 58
Chapter 3 The Burden of Proof in WTO Law 63
3.1 Introduction 63
3.2 The Proceedings 64
3.2.1 Initiating a Proceeding 64
3.2.2 Consultations 66
3.2.3 Panel Proceedings 67
3.2.4 Appellate Body Proceedings 71
3.2.5 Recommendations and Implementation 73
3.3 The Law and the Facts 76
3.3.1 Questions of Law 76
3.3.2 Questions of Fact 78
3.4 The Persuasive Burden 80
3.4.1 The Principle Actori Incumbit Probatio 80
3.4.2 General Rules and Exceptions 82
3.4.2.1 The Approach in Case Law 82
3.4.2.2 Exceptions in the First Sense 83
3.4.2.3 Exceptions in the Second Sense 84
3.5 The Standard of Proof 86
3.6 Establishing a Prima Facie Case 87
3.7 Summary and Conclusions 90
Chapter 4 Health Protection Measures under the GATT 1994 93
4.1 Introduction 93
4.2 Relevant Provisions and Order of Analysis 94
4.3 Article XX（b） 95
4.3.1 The Provision 95
4.3.2 Is the Measure’s Objective to Protect Human Life or Health？ 96
4.3.2.1 Where to Look for the Measure’s Objective？ 96
4.3.2.2 Measures with Several Objectives 97
4.3.2.3 What Health Risks？ 97
4.3.2.4 Does the Health Risk Exist？ 98
4.3.2.5 The Life and Health of What Humans？ 101
4.3.3 Is the Measure Necessary to Protect Human Life or Health？ 105
4.3.3.1 The Necessity of What？ 105
4.3.3.2 The Different Steps of the Necessity Analysis 106
4.3.3.3 The Measure’s Contribution to the Achievement of the Objective 113
4.3.3.4 The Importance of the Measure’s Objective 115
4.3.3.5 The Trade Restrictiveness of the Measure 118
4.3.3.6 Weighing and Balancing the Factors 121
4.3.3.7 The Comparison with Alternative Measures 122
4.4 The Chapeau of Article XX 128
4.4.1 The Provision 128
4.4.2 The Purpose of the Chapeau 129
4.4.3 The Measure Itself and the Application of the Measure 130
4.4.4 Has the Application of the Measure Resulted in Arbitrary or Unjustifiable Discrimination？ 131
4.4.4.1 Three Elements 131
4.4.4.2 Between Countries Where the Same Conditions Prevail 132
4.4.4.3 Discrimination 133
4.4.4.4 Arbitrary or Unjustifiable 135
4.4.5 Has the Application of the Measure Resulted in a Disguised Restriction？ 143
4.5 Summary of the Legal Facts Relating to the Health Risk 145
4.6 The Burden of Proof 147
4.6.1 Case Law 147
4.6.2 Effects and Arguments 152
4.7 Summary and Conclusions 156
Chapter 5 Health Protection Measures under the SPS Agreement 159
5.1 Introduction 159
5.2 Relevant Provisions and Order of Analysis 160
5.3 Scientific Justification 165
5.3.1 Articles 5.1 and 5.2 165
5.3.1.1 The Provisions 165
5.3.1.2 Two Types of Risk Assessment 166
5.3.1.3 The Elements of the First Type of Risk Assessment 167
5.3.1.4 The Elements of the Second Type of Risk Assessment 172
5.3.1.5 The Risk Assessor 175
5.3.1.6 Risk Assessment and Risk Management 176
5.3.1.7 The Existence of a Risk 180
5.3.1.8 Specificity 182
5.3.1.9 The Scientific Basis 184
5.3.1.10 Appropriate to the Circumstances 187
5.3.1.11 Risk Assessment Techniques Developed by the Relevant International Organizations 190
5.3.1.12 Is the Measure Based on the Risk Assessment？ 192
5.3.2 Article 2.2 196
5.3.2.1 The Provision 196
5.3.2.2 Is the Measure Necessary to Protect Human Life or Health？ 197
5.3.2.3 Is the Measure Based on Scientific Principles and Not Maintained without Sufficient Scientific Evidence？ 197
5.3.2.4 The Relationship between Articles 2.2 and 5.1 202
5.3.3 Article 5.7 205
5.3.3.1 The Provision 205
5.3.3.2 The Relationship between Article 5.7 and Articles2.2 and 5.1 207
5.3.3.3 The Relationship between Article 5.7 and Articles2.3，5.5， and 5.6 208
5.3.3.4 Is There a Situation Where Relevant Scientific Evidence Is Insufficient？ 209
5.3.3.5 Has the Measure Been Adopted on the Basis of Available Pertinent Information？ 214
5.3.3.6 Has the Member Sought to Obtain the Additional Information Necessary for a More Objective Assessment of Risk？ 216
5.3.3.7 Has the Member Reviewed the Measure within a Reasonable Period of Time？ 218
5.3.4 Summary of the Legal Facts Relating to the Health Risk 220
5.3.5 The Burden of Proof 222
5.4 Consistency and Non-discrimination 226
5.4.1 Article 5.5 226
5.4.1.1 The Provision 226
5.4.1.2 Has the Member Adopted Levels of Protection in Several Different Situations？ 227
5.4.1.3 Do the Levels of Protection Exhibit an Arbitrary or Unjustifiable Distinction？ 233
5.4.1.4 Has the Distinction Resulted in Discrimination or a Disguised Restriction？ 237
5.4.2 Article 2.3 241
5.4.2.1 The Provision 241
5.4.2.2 Does the Measure Arbitrarily or Unjustifiably Discriminate？ 242
5.4.2.3 Has the Measure Been Applied in a Manner， Which Constitutes a Disguised Restriction？ 244
5.4.3 Summary of the Legal Facts Relating to the Health Risk 245
5.4.4 The Burden of Proof 246
5.5 Trade Restrictiveness 248
5.5.1 Article 5.6 248
5.5.1.1 The Provision 248
5.5.1.2 Does a Reasonably Available Alternative Measure Exist？ 249
5.5.1.3 Does the Alternative Measure Achieve the Level of Protection？ 250
5.5.1.4 Is the Alternative Measure Significantly Less Trade Restrictive？ 254
5.5.2 Summary of the Legal Facts Relating to the Health Risk 255
5.5.3 The Burden of Proof 256
5.6 Harmonization 257
5.6.1 Article 3.1 257
5.6.1.1 The Provision 257
5.6.1.2 Does a Relevant Standard Exist？ 257
5.6.1.3 Is the Measure Based on the Standard？ 258
5.6.2 Article 3.2 262
5.6.2.1 The Provision 262
5.6.2.2 Does the Measure Conform to the Standard？ 262
5.6.2.3 The Presumption of Consistency 263
5.6.3 Article 3.3 264
5.6.3.1 The Provision 264
5.6.3.2 Measures Deviating from Standards 265
5.6.3.3 Scientific Justification of Deviating Measures 266
5.6.4 Summary of the Legal Facts Relating to the Health Risk 267
5.6.5 The Burden of Proof 268
5.7 The Burden of Proof 271
5.7.1 Case Law 271
5.7.2 Effects and Arguments 273
5.8 Summary and Conclusions 277
Chapter 6 Summary and Conclusions 281
Bibliography 291
Table of Cases 303
Index 319