PART ONE BASIC CONCEPTS AND CONTEXT REGARDING INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION 1
Chapter Ⅰ The Nature of International Environmental Issues 5
A.Interdependence 5
B.Human Population 18
C.Social and Cultural Context 26
D.Economic Context： Poverty and Economic Disparities 33
E.Political Context 37
F.Sustainable Development and the Millennium Development Goals 44
Chapter Ⅱ The Philosophical Framework 53
A.The Intergenerational Dimension 53
1.Intergenerational Environmental Issues 53
2.Theoretical Perspectives 58
3.Implementation of Intergenerational Equity 66
4.Judicial Application of Intergenerational Equity 68
a.International Court of Justice 68
b.Supreme Court of the Philippines 71
c.High Court of Kenya 73
5.Parliamentary Implementation 74
B.Relationship of Humans to the Natural System 74
1.Flora 74
2.Fauna 80
Chapter Ⅲ Rational Decisionmaking and Its Constraints：Economics， Risk， and Uncertainty 83
A.What Causes Environmental Degradation？ 83
B.Bearing the Cost of Externalities 85
1.The Theoretical Basis of the Polluter Pays Principle：Externality Theory 85
2.Should States Pay？ 90
3.Externality Theory in Practice 93
C.Risk and Uncertainty 95
1.The Problem of Scientifiic Uncertainty 95
2.Risk Analysis and International Environmental Law 96
a.The Process of Risk Assessment 96
b.Risk Assessment and Risk Management 99
c.Risk Assessment and Management Techniques 102
3.Genetically Modifiied Foods and Climate Change as a Case Study for Risk Assessment under Conditions of Uncertainty 104
D.Cost-Benefit Analysis 113
1.Theory and Historic Practice 113
2.Some Hard Questions 116
3.Cost Benefit Analysis Applied 118
4.The Problem of Soft Benefiits 124
a.What Are They？ 124
b.Valuation of Non-Market Values 127
E.Alternatives to Benefiit Cost Analysis 130
Chapter Ⅳ The International Legal System and Environmental Protection 135
A.International Law 136
1.General Considerations 136
2.Customary Law 138
3.Treaties 144
a.General 144
b.Treary-Making 145
（i） The International Process 145
（ii） The Domestic Process 147
（iii） Options Available to Treaty Parties 147
（iv） Living Treaties 148
4.General Principles of Law 150
5.International Administrative Law 151
6.Decisions by International Organizations 152
7.Other Norms and Instruments 153
a.Soft Law 153
b.Other Legal Statements 156
8.Relationship Between International and Domestic Law 157
B.Avoidance and Settlement of Disputes 160
1.Consultation and Exchange of Views 161
2.Negotiations 162
3.Enquiry or Fact-Finding 163
4.Good Offiices and Mediation 164
5.Conciliation 165
6.Arbitration 166
a.Agreement to Arbitrate 166
b.Establishment of an Arbitral Tribunal 168
c.The Proceeding 168
d.Institutionalization 170
e.Evaluation of Arbitration as a Dispute Settlement Method 170
f.Environmentally Relevant Examples 171
7.International Courts 171
a.Locating a Competent Court 171
b.Consent to Litigation 173
c.Composition of the World Court 173
d.Procedures of the World Court 173
e.Evaluation of ICJ Litigation as a Disputes Settlement Method 174
f.The Advisory Competence of the World Court 175
8.Resort to Regional Agencies or Other International Organizations 176
C.Compliance with International Law 177
1.Voluntary Compliance 177
2.Sanctions 178
a.Unilateral Sanctions 178
b.Collective Sanctions 179
c.Publicity 180
3.Inducing Compliance and Implementation 180
D.The International Institutional Framework 182
1.Background： The Nature of International Organizations 182
2.United Nations Organs with Environmental Functions 182
a.Primarily Environmental Institutions—United Nations Environment Programme （UNEP） 183
b.Institutions to Integrate Environmental Policies with Other Policies 185
（i） Commission on Sustainable Development （CSD） 185
（ii） High-Level Advisory Board on Sustainable Development 186
c.UN-Related Treaty Bodies 186
d.Environmental Conferences 187
（i） General Environmental Conferences 187
（ii） Specifiic Environment-Related Conferences 188
3.International Nongovernmental Organizations 189
4.Summary and Conclusions 190
PART TWO POLLUTION CONTROL： GENERAL AND SPECIFIC NORMS 193
Chapter Ⅴ Accountability And Compliance 199
A.Background： Basic Principles of State Responsibility 199
B.General Principles of International Responsibilityfor Environmental Harm 204
C.Applicability of General Principles of Accountabilityto Developing Countries 220
D.The Global Commons 221
1.Case Study： The Wreck of the Bahia Paraiso 222
2.Remedies for Harm to the Commons 222
E.Nonconfrontational Approaches to Compliance 224
1.The Role of International Institutions 224
2.New Treaty Approaches to the Problem of Compliance 226
F.Private Remedies 244
1.General Principles， International Instruments， and National Legislation 244
2.Case Study： Poro V.Houillieres du Bassin du Lorraine （Hbl） 248
G.Criminal Responsibility 251
Chapter Ⅵ General Norms of Prevention 257
A.Substantive Norms 259
1.The Obligation Not to Cause Transboundary Environmental Harm 259
2.The “Precautionary Principle” 304
3.Sustainable Development 322
B.Procedural Norms 332
1.Prior Notifiication， Consultation， and Negotiation 333
2.Environmental Impact Assessment 360
3.Cooperation 365
4.Summary 367
C.Application of Environmental Norms to Developing Countries 372
Chapter Ⅶ Environmental Disasters 385
A.Case Studies 386
1.Seveso 386
2.Bhopal 390
3.Basel 393
4.The Breakup of the Prestige 395
B.General Norms Applicable to Environmental Emergencies 398
1.Overview 398
2.Principle 18， Rio Declaration 407
3.Article 9， Montreal Rules 407
4.Article 19， Brundtland Commission Experts Group Report 409
C.Contingency Planning and Hazard Management 410
D.Provision of Relief to Accident Victims 414
E.Norms Applicable to Nuclear Accidents 419
1.Case Study： Chernobyl 419
2.The Legal Response 424
Chapter Ⅷ Human Rights and Environment 429
A.Introduction to Human Rights Law 429
B.Human Rights and Environmental Objectives 433
C.The Interrelationship between Human Rights and Environmental Protection 438
D.Emergence of a Right to a Clean Environment 439
1.A New Human Right 440
2.Theoretical Bases 441
3.Articulations of a Human Right 443
a.International Instruments 443
b.Regional Instruments 445
c.National Laws 449
E.Application of Existing Human Rights 452
1.Substantive Rights 452
2.Procedural Guarantees 456
F.The Nature of the Right 458
1.Form and Substance 458
2.Content of the Right 459
3.Context of the Right 461
a.Indigenous Peoples 462
b.Environmental Refugees 479
c.A Human Right to Water？ 485
d.Community-Based Property Rights and Community Right to Prior Informed Consent 499
Chapter Ⅸ Regional Transboundary Pollution 501
A.Case Study： Acid Rain 501
1.Canada-United States Acid Rain 502
a.Background 502
b.The 1991 Agreement 505
c.Reviews of the 1991 Agreement 507
2.Acid Rain within the European Union Region 508
3.Transboundary Pollution in ASEAN： Cooperative Approaches 521
B.Pollution of International Watercourses 523
1.Introduction to the Problem 523
2.General Principles 527
3.Case Study： Protection of the Great Lakes Ecosystem 536
Chapter Ⅹ Controlling Ozone Depletion 557
A.The Scientifiic Background 558
1.The Ozone Layer 558
2.The Antarctic Ozone Hole 560
3.Depletion of the Ozone Layer over the Northern Hemisphere 561
4.The Chemicals That Cause Ozone Depletion 561
B.International Legal Principles 563
1.The Historical Perspective 563
2.More Recent Principles 564
C.The Montreal Protocol 564
1.Negotiation of the Protocol 573
2.Scientifiic Uncertainry and the Precautionary Approach 579
3.Compliance 581
D.Implementation of the Montreal Protocol 583
1.The United States 584
2.The European Community 587
3.Other Countries 588
Chapter ⅩⅠ Global Climate Change 591
A.Assessing Climate Change 598
1.The Science of Greenhouse Gases 598
2.Human-Induced Climate Change 602
3.Greenhouse Gases， Population， and Developing Countries 605
B.Responding to Climate Change 609
1.Adapting to Climate Change 609
2.Responding to the Threat： The Framework Convention on Climate Change 613
a.Background 613
b.The Climate Change Convention 614
c.Emissions Trading to Control Greenhouse Gas Emissions 622
d.The Kyoto Protocol 628
（i） Developments Leading to the Kyoto Protocol to the FCCC （1997） 628
（ii） Introduction to the Kyoto Protocol： Basic Characteristics 629
（iii） Quantifiied Emissions Limitation and Reduction Objectives （QELROs or Targets）： Emissions and Sinks 639
（iv） Market-Based Mechanisms 642
（v） Implementation and Compliance 644
（vi） Developing Countries 647
（vii） The Drama of the Protocol’s Entry into Force 649
（viii） Developments Regarding the Kyoto Protocol Since Its Entry into Force： The Eleventh Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the FCCC and the First Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol， Montreal， 28 November-9 December 2005 650
Chapter ⅩⅡ Protection of the Marine Environment 655
A.The Sea and Its Use by Humans 656
B.The Law of the Marine Environment 657
1.Historical Development 657
2.The Approach of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea （UNCLOS） 659
C.Ocean Dumping 663
1.The London Convention of 1972 664
2.The 1996 Protocol to the London Convention 666
D.Land-Based Sources of Marine Pollution 672
1.The United Nations Convention on the Law 672
2.The Montreal Guidelines 679
Chapter ⅩⅢ Hazardous Substances： Wastes， Toxic Chemicals， Heavy Metals 683
A.Hazardous Wastes 683
1.The Prevailing Legal Regime 684
2.Defiinition of Hazardous Wastes 687
3.Prior Informed Consent 690
4.Disposal in an Environmentally Sound Manner 691
5.Reimportation of Wastes 692
6.Agreements and Arrangements 693
B.Hazardous Chemicals 695
1.The Problem 695
2.International Initiatives 707
a.UNEP’s Montevideo Programme 708
b.Agenda 21 708
c.Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical Safety （IFCS） 709
d.Prior Informed Consent （PIC） 709
e.Persistent Organic Pollutants （POPs） 711
（i） Stockholm Convention 711
（ii） Requirements of the Stockholm Convention 712
（iii） Regional and Bilateral Approaches 713
f.Heavy Metals 714
（i） General： LRTAP Protocol on Heavy Metals 714
（ii） Lead 715
（iii） Mercury 716
g.Endocrine Disruptors 717
h.SAICM/ICCM 718
i.REACH 719
j.Framework Convention on Tobacco Control 720
Chapter ⅩⅣ Military Activities 723
A.Case Study： The 1991 Gulf War 724
B.Historical Background 730
1.Pre-Modern Times 730
2.Mid-Nineteenth to Mid-Twentieth Century 730
3.Post-Stockholm Conference and Post-Vietnam War 731
C.Current International Law on the Protection of the Environment in Warfare 733
1.General Principles Relating to War and the Environment 733
2.Environmental Warfare 737
3.General Principles of Humanitarian Law 738
4.Protection of Property 739
5.Prohibitions Against the Unleashing of Dangerous Forces 740
6.Protection of Cultural Property 741
7.Protection of Particular Environments 742
8.Prohibition or Restriction of Certain Weapons 743
9.Mines and Other Remnants of War 744
10.Prohibition of War and of Preparations Therefor 746
11.The Status of General Environmental Protection Treaties in Time of War 747
D.Enforcement 749
1.Settlement of Disputes 750
2.Preparation of Military Manuals 751
3.Civil Liability 751
4.Criminal Responsibility 752
PART THREE NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT 757
Chapter ⅩⅤ Norms of Allocation of Use： Fresh Water 761
A.The “Harmon Doctrine” 763
B.Case Study： The Tigris-Euphrates Basin 765
C.General Principles of International Law Concerning the Allocation and Use of International Watercourses 767
1.The United Nations Convention 767
2.Another Formulation： The International Law Commission’s Berlin Rules 776
3.The Gabcikovo-Nagymaros Case 795
4.Three Developing Problems： Global Climate Change， International Acquatic Ecosystems and a Human Right to Water 804
a.Global Climate Change 804
b.Ecosystem Conservation 807
c.Human Right to Water 813
Chapter ⅩⅥ Biological Diversity 817
A.Conservation of Endangered Species 819
1.The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species （CITES） 819
a.Basic Elements of Convention 819
b.The Elephant Controversy 823
c.Problems of Implementation of and Compliance with CITES 838
2.Regional Agreements 841
a.Western Hemisphere/OAS—The Convention on Nature Protections and Wildlife Preservation in the Western Hemisphere （Oct.12， 1940， effective Apr.30， 1942） 841
b.Africa—African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources （Sept.15， 1968， effective June 16， 1969） 842
c.Association of South East Asian Nations （ASEAN） Agreement on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources， July 9， 1985 （not yet in force） 842
d.Europe—Declaration on the Conservation of Flora， Fauna， and Their Habitats， 1988 843
3.Protecting Whales and Other Species 844
a.Whales 844
（i） Introduction 844
（ii） Small Cetaceans 846
（iii） Scientifiic Research Exception 847
（iv） Aboriginal Whaling 848
（v） Unilateral Sanctions 848
（vi） The Scientifiic Basis for Protecting Whales 850
b.Fur Seals 852
c.Polar Bears 853
d.Migratory Species of Wild Animals 853
B.Loss of Biological Diversity： The Problem 854
C.Just What Is Biodiversity？ 858
1.Anticipating Environmental Change 860
a.Metapopulations 861
b.Dispersal 862
c.Habitat Heterogeneity 864
2.Speciation as a Source of Biodiversity 865
3.Can Loss of Biodiversity Be Adaptive？ 866
D.Options for Conserving Biological Diversity 868
1.National Parks and Wildlife Reserves 868
2.Alternative Approaches to Habitat Conservation 872
3.The Biodiversity Convention 882
4.Ex Situ Conservation： Gene Banks 893
E.Forests 900
1.Introduction to the Value of Forests as a Natural Resource 900
2.Rio Forest Principles 903
3.The Intergovernmental Panel on Forests 907
4.Trade in Tropical Timber 909
Chapter ⅩⅦ Biosafety Regulation 915
A.The Health and Environmental Risks of Genetically Modifiied Foods 915
B.The EU versus the United States 915
PART FOUR TRADE AND FINANCE 933
Chapter ⅩⅧ Environment and Trade 935
A.Historical Introduction 935
B.Dispute Settlement in the World Trade Organization 938
C.Domestic Environmental Measures 941
1.The Thai Cigarette Case 942
2.The Beef Hormones Case 943
3.The Reformulated Gasoline Case 944
4.The Asbestos Case 946
D.Unilateral Measures to Protect Resources Outside National Borders 947
1.The Tuna-Dolphin Controversy 947
a.United States Actions and Court Decisions 947
b.The First GATT Tuna/Dolphin Panel Report （Tuna-Dolphin Ⅰ） 950
c.The Secondary Boycott of Yellowfim Tuna（Tuna-Dolphin Ⅱ） 955
2.Unilateral Environmental Actions after the Rio Conference 957
3.The Shrimp-Turtle Dispute 959
E.Multilateral Environmental Agreements 983
1.The Multilateral Agreements 984
2.The North American Free Trade Agreement and Multilateral Environmental Agreements 991
F.Environmental Labeling 992
1.Introduction to Eco-Labeling 992
2.Environmental Labeling and Trade Regulation 994
G.Transnational Environmental Codes 998
H.Regional Trade Agreements： The North American Free Trade Agreement 1007
Chapter ⅩⅨ Financing Environmental Protection 1017
A.Introduction 1017
1.Millennium Development Goals 1018
2.World Summit on Sustainable Development，Johannesburg 2002 1018
3.Public-Private Partnership 1020
4.The Rio Summit and Agenda 21 1020
5.Treaties and Other International Instruments 1022
B.Multilateral and Bilateral Development Banks 1024
1.The World Bank 1024
2.Regional Multilateral Development Banks 1029
a.African Development Bank 1029
b.Asian Development Bank 1030
c.Inter-American Development Bank Group 1030
d.European Bank for Reconstruction and Development 1031
e.North American Development Bank 1031
3.Environmental and Social Impacts of Actions Funded by MDBs 1032
4.The World Bank Inspection Panel 1034
a.The Inspection Panel’s Structure 1035
b.Inspection Panel’s Authority 1036
c.Determining Whether a Request Is Eligible for an Investigation 1036
d.Panel Investigations 1037
e.Experience of the Inspection Panel 1037
5.Other International Accountability Mechanisms 1041
a.The Compliance Advisor/Ombudsman （CAO） of the International Finance Corporation 1041
b.The Accountability Mechanism of the Asian Development Bank （ADB） 1041
c.The Independent Investigation Mechanism of the Inter-American Development Bank （IDB） 1042
d.Others 1043
6.World Bank and IFC leanding 1044
a.The World Bank’s Country Systems Approach 1044
b.Development Policy Lending 1045
c.The IFC’s Policy on Social and Environmental Sustainability 1046
C.Global Environmental Facility 1049
1.Structure 1049
2.Project Funding 1050
3.Effectiveness of GEF 1050
D.Export Credit Agencies 1053
E.Debt Relief Approaches 1058
1.Debt-for-Nature Swaps 1058
2.Enterprise for the Americas Institute 1068
F.Treaty-Based Financial Mechanisms and Funds for the Environment 1068
G.Other Financing Approaches 1084
Appendix Ⅰ.International Environmental Law Research 1087
Appendix Ⅱ. International Organizations 1093
Appendix Ⅲ.General Steps in Formulating Multilateral Agreements 1107
Appendix Ⅳ.International Protection of National Sites： World Heritage and Wetlands 1117
Index 1131