CHAPTER 1DETERMINING ADEQUATE PERSPECTIVES 1
1. The Challenge of Improving Conflict Resolution 1
2. Definition of Terms 2
2.1 Conflict and Dispute 2
2.1.1 Conflict 2
2.1.2 Dispute 3
2.1.2.1 Definition in the Jurisprudence of PCIJ and ICJ 3
2.1.2.2 Defiinition in Academic Writing 5
2.1.2.3 The Aspect of Justiciability 6
2.1.3 Separation of Dispute from Conflict？ 6
2.2 International Character 9
2.2.1 Traditional Interstate Conflicts 10
2.2.2 Involvement of International Actors Other than States 10
2.2.3 Subject Matter of International Quality 11
2.2.4 Processes of Internationalization of Conflicts 11
2.2.5 Conclusion 13
2.3 Settlement and Resolution 13
2.3.1 Method of Reaction 14
2.3.2 Level or Substantive Depth 14
2.3.3 Conclusion 15
2.4 Intervention 15
2.4.1 Definitions 15
2.4.2 Conclusion 18
2.5 Definition of Third Par/Forms of Intervention / Interest 18
2.5.1 Principal Party and Third Party 18
2.5.2 Horizontal or Vertical Intervention 19
2.5.3 Concept of Interests 20
3. Possible Departure Points 21
3.1 Focus on Existing Legal Provisions 23
3.1.1 Background 23
3.1.2 Illustrations 25
3.1.2.1 Dispute Settlement System of the UN 25
3.1.2.2 Specialized Regime： UNCLOS Dispute Settlement 27
3.1.2.3 Specialized Regime： WTO Dispute Settlement 29
3.1.3 Conclusion 32
3.2 Focus on Conflict Subject Matter 32
3.2.1 Background 32
3.2.2 Illustration 33
3.2.2.1 Environmental Conflicts 33
3.2.2.2 Ethnic Conflicts 37
3.2.2.3 Territory and Boundary Conflicts 40
3.2.3 Conclusion 43
3.3 Focus on Regional Approaches to Conflict 44
3.3.1 Background 44
3.3.2 Illustration： Conflict in Africa 46
3.3.2.1 Diffcult Geopolitical Preconditions 46
3.3.2.2 Organization of African Unity（Now African Union） 48
3.3.2.3 Attempts to Identify the Core of African Conflict： Identity Issues 49
3.3.3 Conclusion 50
3.4 Focus on Contemporary Conflict Context 51
3.4.1 Background 51
3.4.2 Illustration： Observations on Conflict 52
3.4.2.1 Emergence of Non-State Actors 52
3.4.2.2 Internationalization of Conflict 54
3.4.2.3 Multipolar Nature of Conflicts 55
3.4.2.4 Emergence of Interested International Community 55
3.4.2.5 Likelihood of Interventions 56
3.4.2.6 Global Externalities 56
3.4.2.7 Global Communication Technology 57
3.4.2.8 Ideological Elements of Conflict 58
3.4.2.9 Intercultural Elements of Conflict 59
3.4.3 Conclusion 60
3.5 Comparison of the Four Approaches 61
4. Summary and Further Perspective 62
CHAPTER 2 THIRD PARTIES AND CONFLICTS 65
1. Complex Interdependence and Conflict 65
1.1 Structural Elements of Interdependence 66
1.1.1 Normative Element： Legal Orders and New Obligations 66
1.1.2 Economic Element： Integration of Economic Systems 72
1.1.3 Cultural Element： The Spreading of Images and Values 73
1.1.4 Value-Related Element： Human Rights and Democratization 73
1.1.5 Connecting Conflict and Interdependence 75
1.2 Third Party Conflict Intervention 76
1.2.1 Conflict-Related Paradigms Under Review 76
1.2.1.1 Bilateral， State-Focused Definition of Conflict 76
1.2.1.2 Symbolic Role of International Communi in Conflicts 76
1.2.1.3 Redefinition of （Non-）Intervention 77
1.2.2 Resulting Focus of Analysis 77
2. Developing a Working Definition of a Third Par 78
2.1 Traditional Approach to Defining a Third Party 79
2.1.1 Vienna Convention on Law of Treaties 80
2.1.2 International Disputes and Adjudication 80
2.2 Contextual Approach to Defining Third Party 81
2.2.1 Treaties and Third Parties 81
2.2.2 Conflicts and Third Parties 83
2.3 Tentative Working Definition of Third Party 85
2.3.1 ‘Contemporization’ of the Term Third Party 85
2.3.2 The Concept of Interests 86
2.3.3 Working Definition 87
3. Structuring Third Party Intervention in Conflict 87
3.1 Defining Categories of Third Party Conflict Intervention 88
3.2 Comments on the Contemporaty System 90
3.2.1 Institutionalized Intervention and the ICJ 91
3.2.1.1 Vertical Intervention- Prevalence of Consensus 91
3.2.1.2 Horizontal Intervention - Articles 62 and 63 91
3.2.1.3 Horizontal Intervention：Indispensable Third Parties？ 97
3.2.1.4 The Amicus Curiae Debate 99
3.2.1.5 Implications for the ICJ 102
3.2.2 Non-Institutionalized Conflict Resolution 103
3.2.2.1 Vertical Third Party Intervention 104
3.2.2.2 Horizontal Third Party Intervention 105
3.3 Conclusion - The Adaptation Gap 105
4. Demands for Adequate Third Party Conflict Roles 106
4.1 Systemic Perspective of Formulating Concrete Demands 106
4.2 Concrete Elements of Third Party Conflict Intervention 107
4.2.1 Detecting All Relevant Third Party Interests in Conflicts 107
4.2.2 Ensuring Explicit Role of International Community 107
4.2.3 Facilitating Horizontal Conflict Intervention 108
4.2.4 Facilitating Vertical， Constructive Conflict Intervention 108
4.2.5 Clarifying Form of Intervention 109
5. Summary and Further Perspective 109
CHAPTER 3 ADJUDICATION AND ADR 113
1. Procedural Forum for Structural Changes 113
2. Transfer： Domestic and International ADR 114
2.1 Different Spheres of ADR 115
2.2 Guiding Aspects of International Conflicts 116
2.2.1 Effects of Sovereignty 116
2.2.2 Nature of Parties 117
2.2.3 Special Regimes： Human Rights 118
2.2.4 The Time Factor 119
2.3 Conclusion 119
3. Spectrum of Peaceful Conflict Resolution Methods 119
3.1 Existing Spectrum of Third Party Roles in Conflict 119
3.2 Basic Differentiation 120
3.2.1 Adjudication and Judicial Proceedings 121
3.2.2 ADR Proceedings 122
3.2.3 Arbitration and Quasi-Judicial Proceedings 123
4. The Role of Adjudication in International Conflicts 125
4.1 Observations about The International Court of Justice 125
4.2 Advantages of Adjudication in National Legal Systems 126
4.2.1 Disposition of the Dispute 127
4.2.2 Principled and Rational Process Parameters 127
4.2.3 Impartiality of the Judiciary 127
4.2.4 Precedential and System-Reinforcing Effects 127
4.2.5 Public Incentive to Private Settlement 127
4.3 Advantages of Adjudication in International Legal System 128
4.3.1 Transfer of Insights from Domestic Adjudication 128
4.3.2 Specific Advantages of International Adjudication 133
4.4 Limits of Adjudication in National Legal Systems 134
4.4.1 Zero-Sum or Win-Lose Nature 134
4.4.2 Unpredictability 134
4.4.3 Imposition of Judgment 135
4.4.4 Adversarial Escalatoty Nature 135
4.4.5 Artificial Reduction of Complexity 135
4.5 Limits of International Adjudication 137
4.5.1 Transfer from Domestic Adjudication 137
4.5.2 Specific Limits of International Adjudication 143
4.5.2.1 Proliferation of Tribunals 143
4.5.2.2 Unwillingness of States to Submit 144
4.5.2.3 Adverse Precedential Effects 145
4.5.2.4 Lack of Enforcement Mechanisms 145
4.5.2.5 Costs， Inconvenience and Delay 146
4.5.2.6 Threshold for Small State Applicants 147
4.5.2.7 Lack of Standing of Non-State Actors 148
4.5.2.8 Incapacity as Fact-Finding Organ 149
4.5.3 Limits of International Adjudication in Violent Conflicts 150
4.5.3.1 Participants 150
4.5.3.2 Substance of Conflict 150
4.5.3.3 Sensitivity of Defense Issues 151
4.5.3.4 Overlap with UN Security Council Role 151
4.5.3.5 Limited Fact-Finding Capacity 151
4.6 Comments on International Arbitration 151
4.7 Conclusion 153
5. The Role of ADR in International Conflicts 154
5.1 Background Observations 154
5.1.1 International Diplomacy and ADR 154
5.1.2 The Emergence of Conflict Science and ADR 155
5.1.2.1 Emergence of ADR in the United States 156
5.1.2.2 Multidisciplinary Conflict Resolution Theory 156
5.1.3 Cognitive Psychology and Negotiation Analysis 158
5.1.3.1 Cognitive Psychology 159
5.1.3.2 Negotiation Analysis 162
5.1.3.3 Comment 163
5.2 Advantages of ADR in Domestic Settings 164
5.2.1 Party Autonomy 164
5.2.2 Win-Win Character 164
5.2.3 Enduring， Interest-Based Settlements 165
5.2.4 Structure for Coping with Complexi 165
5.2.5 Working with Cognitive Errors 166
5.2.6 Process and Outcome Flexibili 166
5.2.7 Linking Different Issues 167
5.2.8 Costs 167
5.2.9 Conflidentiali 167
5.2.10 Relationship Aspect 167
5.3 Advantages of ADR in the International Setting 167
5.3.1 Transfer of Insights from Domestic Settings 167
5.3.2 Specific Advantages of International ADR 170
5.4 Limits of ADR in Domestic Settings 171
5.4.1 Privatization or Denial of Justice 171
5.4.2 Lack of Procedural Clarity 172
5.4.3 Undercutting of Protective Minimum Standards 172
5.4.4 Lack of Enforcement Framework 172
5.4.5 Prejudicing Own Case for Adjudication 172
5.4.6 Lack of Transparency 172
5.4.7 Power Asymmetries 173
5.5 Limits of International ADR 173
5.5.1 Transfer of Insights from Domestic ADR 174
5.5.2 Specific Limits of International ADR 175
5.5.2.1 Prevalence of Bias and Power in Intermediary Efforts 175
5.5.2.2 Danger of War 176
5.5.2.3 Cultural Clashes 176
5.5.2.4 Non-Recognition 176
5.5.3 Limits of ADR in Violent Conflicts 177
5.6 Conclusion 177
6. Synopsis of International ADR Techniques 178
6.1 Status Quo of Negotiation in the ADR Context 178
6.2 Non-Adjudicative Third Party Functions 181
6.2.1 Mediation 182
6.2.2 Conciliation 183
6.2.3 Inquiry and Fact-Finding 185
6.2.4 Good Offices 187
6.2.5 Recourse to Regional Organizations 188
6.2.6 Consultation 189
6.2.7 Track Two Diplomacy： Problem Solving Workshops 191
6.2.8 Truth Commissions 193
6.3 Structuring and Reducing the Spectrum 194
7. Consequences 195
7.1 Categories and Parameters 195
7.2 Suitability of International Adjudication 196
7.2.1 Clear Definition of Conflict as Dispute 196
7.2.2 Outcome Indifference 196
7.2.3 Refusal of Conflict Parties to Communicate 197
7.2.4 Decisive Legal Background 197
7.2.5 Buying Time 197
7.2.6 Human Rights Background： Minimum Guarantee Contexts 197
7.2.7 Specific Regions 198
7.3 Suitability of International ADR 198
7.3.1 Multipolar Conflicts 198
7.3.2 Relative Power Parity 198
7.3.3 Relevance of （State and Non-State） Third Parties 199
7.3.4 Long-Term Relationship 199
7.3.5 Opportunity for Issue Linkage 199
7.4 ADR as Procedural Forum for Structural Changes 199
7.4.1 Idea of Integrated Models 199
7.4.2 Focus on ADR and Mediation 201
7.4.2.1 Integration of Numerous and Various Actors 202
7.4.2.2 Relevance of Interests 202
7.4.2.3 Reflection of Substantive and Social Complexity 202
7.4.2.4 Reflection Tradeoff Intervention / Sovereignty 203
7.4.2.5 Allowing Adequate Role of Third Parties 203
7.4.2.6 Allowing Particular Role of International Community 203
7.4.2.7 Responding to Cognitive Barriers 205
7.4.2.8 Responding to Intercultural Elements 205
7.5 Conclusion 206
8. Summary and Further Perspective 206
CHAPTER 4 ANALYZING INTERNATIONAL MEDIATION 209
1. Conceptual Diversity - Conceptual Confusion 209
2. Scenarios Referred to as ‘International Mediations’ 211
2.1 Middle East Conflict 211
2.1.1 Camp David 212
2.1.2 Oslo Accords 214
2.2 Bosnia 215
3. Mediation Activities within UN Context 217
3.1 UN Mediation： Status Quo and Experience 217
3.1.1 Exceptional Status 218
3.1.2 UN Mediation Mechanisms and Actors 220
3.1.3 Observations on Cases， Successes and Failures 222
3.2 Internal UN Mediation Structure 224
3.3 Recent Initiatives 225
3.3.1 An Agenda for Peace 225
3.3.2 Panel on UN Peace Operations 226
3.3.3 High-Level Panel on Threats， Challenges and Change 227
3.3.4 2005 World Summit Outcome 228
3.4 Conclusion 229
4. Concepts of Categorizing International Mediation 231
4.1 Small Shared Conceptual Ground 231
4.2 Different Concepts of Categorizing Mediation 231
4.2.1 Louis Kriesberg 232
4.2.1.1 Traditional Mediation 233
4.2.1.2 Problem-Solving Mediation 233
4.2.2 Baruch Bush and Folger： Transformative Mediation 233
4.2.3 Marieke Kleiboer 234
4.2.3.1 Power-Brokerage 234
4.2.3.2 Domination 235
4.2.3.3 Problem-Solving 235
4.2.3.4 Restructuring Relationships 236
4.2.4 Conny Peck 236
4.2.4.1 Power-Based 236
4.2.4.2 Rights-Based 236
4.2.4.3 Interest-Based 236
4.2.5 Touval and Zartman 237
4.2.5.1 Facilitation 237
4.2.5.2 Formulation 237
4.2.5.3 Manipulation 238
4.2.6 Implications for Categorizing Mediation 238
4.3 Spectrum of Mediation Forms 239
5. Focus on Interest-Based， Facilitative Mediation 242
5.1 Excluding Power Mediation 242
5.2 The Essential Role of Parties’ Interests 244
5.3 The Essential Role of Impartiality and Facilitation 246
5.4 Model of Interest-Based， Facilitative Mediation 246
6. Conceptual Parameters of Interest-Based， Facilitative Mediation 247
6.1 Attributes 247
6.1.1 Neutrality and Impartiality 247
6.1.2 Mediator Strength and Resources 252
6.1.3 Standing/Rank 255
6.1.4 Degree of Cultural Proximity 256
6.1.5 Conclusion 257
6.2 （Institutional） Background of Mediator 258
6.2.1 Individual Person（s） 258
6.2.2 Representative（s） of States 259
6.2.3 Representative（s） of Regional Organizations 260
6.2.4 Representative（s） of United Nations 261
6.2.5 Representative（s） of other Non-State Entities 263
6.2.6 Implications for Interest-Based， Facilitative Mediation 263
6.3 Parties 264
6.3.1 Nature of Parties 264
6.3.2 Representation of Entities Involved 265
6.3.3 Number of Parties 266
6.4 Time of Intervention 268
6.5 Mediation Success 270
6.6 Phase Model， Mediator Roles and Techniques 273
6.6.1 Phase Model of Interest-Based， Facilitative Mediation 273
6.6.2 Resulting Mediator Roles and Techniques 277
7. Summary and Further Perspective 280
CHAPTER 5 IMPLEMENTATION OF OBSERVATIONS 283
1. Methods to Realize Change 283
1.1 Methods to Inceuence Behavior 284
1.1.1 Normative Approaches 284
1.1.2 Economic Rationale 285
1.1.2.1 Effective Threat of Sanctions 286
1.1.2.2 Positive Incentives 287
1.1.3 Initially Facilitative Regimes 288
1.2 Discussion and Implications 289
2. Example： Mediation and Transitional Justice 292
2.1 Background 292
2.2 Application of Mediation in the Transitional Justice Context 293
2.2.1 Mediating Peace and Justice 293
2.2.1.1 Role of Mediation in the Justice Process 294
2.2.1.2 Role of Mediation in Establishing Facts 295
2.2.1.3 Role of Mediation in Determining Reparations 295
2.2.1.4 Role of Mediation in the Process of Healing 296
2.2.1.5 Role of Mediation in Institutional Reforms 296
2.2.2 Mediating the Framework of Intervention 296
2.2.2.1 Coordinating the Actors 297
2.2.2.2 Designing the Process 297
2.3 Eliciting Interests and Defining Priorities 297
2.3.1 Matrix of Interests 298
2.3.1.1 Interests of the Individual Victims 298
2.3.1.2 Interests of the Society in Transition 299
2.3.1.3 Interests of the International Communiry 300
2.3.1.4 Interests of Former Perpetrators 300
2.3.2 Observations 301
2.3.3 Prioritizing Competing Interests 302
2.4 Conclusion 303
3. Aims， Principles， and Suggestions for Implementation 304
3.1 Establishing a More Holistic Perception of Conflict 305
3.2 Establishing a More Sophisticated Perception of ADR 305
3.3 Conceptualizing Interplay between Adjudication and ADR 305
3.3.1 Structured and Informed Choice between Techniques 307
3.3.2 Proposed Sequence of Mechanisms 307
3.3.3 Strengthening an Integrated System of Intervention 308
3.4 Design Principles for Conflict-Resolution Institutions 309
3.5 Improving UN Dispute Settlement 313
3.5.1 Streamlining and Strengthening Existing System 313
3.5.1.1 Limiting the Free Choice of Means 313
3.5.1.2 Focus on Specific Model： Interest-Based Orientation 314
3.5.2 Enhancing the Role of UN Mediation Support Unit 314
3.5.3 Establishing Conflict Prevention and Resolution Centers？ 317
3.5.4 Better Coordination within UN 318
3.5.5 Extensive Knowledge Sharing 320
3.6 Fostering Interest-Based Mediation in General 322
3.6.1 Research on Specific Conflict（Resolution） Scenarios 322
3.6.2 Codifying Procedure of Interest-Based Mediation 323
3.6.3 Codifying Code of Conduct for Mediators 324
3.6.4 Teaching Mediation Skills 325
3.6.5 Establishing Mediation Networks 325
4. Summary 327
CHAPTER 6 SUMMARY 329
1. Summary 329
2. Collection of Propositions Resulting From This Book 331
3. Zusammenfassung 339
4. Thesenhafte Zusammenstellung der Ergebnisse 342
INDEX 351