1 Introduction 1
1.1 The importance of WTO oversight of government trade measures 1
1.2 Conceptual foundations of standards of review 4
1.2.1 The definition of standards of review 4
1.2.2 Types of standards 6
1.2.3 Review of facts versus law 8
1.2.4 Rationales for standards of review 10
1.2.5 Standards applied in other relevant jurisdictions 12
A Australia 13
B The United States 15
C France 18
D The European Court of Justice 20
E Selected international dispute settlement bodies 24
F Assessment of other legal systems 25
1.3 Application of standards of review in the WTO 27
1.3.1 Relevancy， definitions and application 27
1.3.2 Institutional considerations and limitations within the WTO system 30
1.3.3 Usefulness of the domestic law analogy 32
1.4 Argument， methodology and chapter outlines 33
1.4.1 Summary of argument 33
1.4.2 Methodology 34
1.4.3 Chapter outlines 35
2 The development of the WTO standard of review 36
2.1 Introduction 36
2.2 The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1947 37
2.2.1 GATT 1947 37
2.2.2 Tokyo Round Codes 40
2.2.3 GATT panel decisions 42
2.3 The Uruguay Round negotiations 44
2.4 The World Trade Organization 47
2.4.1 Decisions prior to EC-Hormones 47
2.4.2 EC-Hormones 49
2.4.3 Post EC-Hormones 52
2.4.4 The anti-dumping standard of review 59
2.5 Conclusion 65
3 Alternative models and principles for the development of a WTO standard of review 66
3.1 Introduction 66
3.2 Alternative standard of review models 68
3.2.1 The sovereignty perspective and Chevron analogy 68
3.2.2 The ‘deliberation test’ 72
3.2.3 The ‘reasonable regulator’ test 75
3.2.4 De novo review 79
3.2.5 A flexible standard of review 81
3.2.6 Other theoretical approaches： con stitutionalization and harmonization 83
3.2.7 Deference based upon a ‘margin of appreciation’ or ‘policy space’ 86
3.3 Idention ication of principles for the development of a WTO standard of review 87
3.3.1 Relevant principles 90
3.3.2 Developing a standard that supports the key aims of WTO dispute settlement 91
3.3.3 Ensuring adjudicative legitimacy 94
3.3.4 Developing appropriate procedures 96
A Scope of fact-finding and expertise 97
B Efficiency 97
C Procedural fairness 98
3.4 Conclusion 99
4 A new general standard of review 100
4.1 Introduction 100
4.2 Features of a new general standard of review 102
4.2.1 The requirement to examine all available and sufficient evidence 103
4.2.2 The requirement to conduct a comprehensive review 108
4.2.3 Treatment of facts and law 112
4.3 Justifications for a new general standard of review 114
4.3.1 The legal basis for developing a new standard of review 115
4.3.2 Assessment against relevant standard of review principles 118
4.3.3 Brief assessment against other standards of review 121
4.3.4 The relationship with Article 17.6 of the Anti-Dumping Agreement 123
4.4 Conclusion 125
5 Modification of the general standard of review 127
5.1 Introduction 127
5.2 The application of a specific standard of review 130
5.2.1 The threshold test for the modification of the general standard of review 130
5.2.2 The method of construction of a specific standard of review 138
5.2.3 The treatment of facts and law 143
5.3 Justifications for a specific standard of review 145
5.3.1 General arguments for and against a specific standard of review 146
5.3.2 The legal basis for a specific standard of review 148
5.3.3 Assessment against relevant standard of review principles 150
5.3.4 Brief assessment against other standards of review 152
5.4 Conclusion 154
6 The application of a new standard of review to the Trade Remedy Agreements 155
6.1 Introduction 155
6.2 Factual and legal issues in reviewing trade remedies 157
6.3 The Anti-Dumping Agreement 158
6.3.1 Key concepts and obligations 158
6.3.2 The role of Article 17.6 161
6.3.3 The application of the new standard to the Anti-Dumping Agreement 163
6.4 The Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures 169
6.4.1 Key concepts and obligations 169
6.4.2 The application of the new standard to the SCM Agreement 171
6.5 The Safeguards Agreement 174
6.5.1 Key concepts and obligations 174
6.5.2 The application of the new standard to the Safeguards Agreement 177
6.6 Comparison of the new standard with the current standard applied in trade remedy disputes 179
6.6.1 The Anti-Dumping Agreement 179
6.6.2 The SCM Agreement 180
6.6.3 The Safeguards Agreement 182
6.7 Conclusion 183
7 The application of a new standard of review to selected non-trade remedy agreements 185
7.1 Introduction 185
7.2 Uniformity of the standard of review in non-trade remedy agreements 187
7.3 The agreement on sanitary and phytosanitary measures 188
7.3.1 Key concepts and obligations 188
7.3.2 The application of the new standard to the SPS Agreement 191
7.4 The agreement on technical barriers to trade 199
7.4.1 Key concepts and obligations 199
7.4.2 The application of the new standard to the TBT Agreement 201
7.5 The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994 205
7.5.1 Key concepts and obligations 205
7.5.2 The application of the new standard to GATT 1994 207
7.6 Comparison of the new standard with the current standard applied to non-trade remedy disputes 209
7.6.1 The SPS Agreement 209
7.6.2 The TBT Agreement 211
7.6.3 GATT 1994 212
7.7 Conclusion 213
8 Conclusion 214
8.1 Overview of this work 214
8.1.1 Critique and contentions 214
8.1.2 Summary of chapters 216
8.2 Directions for future research 223
8.3 The significance of the standard of review issue for the WTO：concluding remarks 226
Bibliography 228
Index 243