Introduction 1
Ⅰ.Purpose of this Study 1
Ⅱ.Objective and Scope 4
Ⅲ.Methodology 5
Ⅳ.Structure 9
PART ONE FUNDAMENTAL ISSUES 15
Chapter One Free Trade and Its Limits 15
Ⅰ.Introduction 15
Ⅱ.The Case for Free Trade 16
A. Free Trade Theory 17
B. Protectionism 21
C. Free Trade in a Wider Context 24
D. Conclusion 26
Ⅲ.Objections to Free Trade 27
A. Economic Arguments 28
B. Non-Economic Arguments 32
Ⅳ.Conclusion 53
Chapter Two The Potential and Limitations of Interpretation in WTO Law 55
Ⅰ.Introduction 55
Ⅱ.Interrelationship between WTO Law and Public International Law 56
Ⅲ.Methods of Interpretation in WTO Law 61
A. Article 3.2 DSU 61
B. Articles 31 and 32 VCLT and their Application in WTO Law 62
C. General Rule： Article 31 VCLT 63
D. Article 31（3）（c） VCLT： Promoting the Coherence of International Law 69
E. Article 32 VCLT： Supplementary Means of Interpretation 77
F. Additional Principles of Treaty Interpretation 78
Ⅳ.Conclusion 82
Chapter Three The Role and Function of Non-Economic Exception Clauses in Trade Agreements 85
Ⅰ.Introduction 85
Ⅱ.Basic Principles and Objectives of Trade Agreements 86
Ⅲ.Reasons for Non-Economic Exception Clauses 88
A. Stability and Flexibility 88
B. State Sovereignty and Allocation of Power 89
C. Intrinsic Importance of Non-Economic Objectives 93
D. Tensions Inherent in the System 95
Ⅳ.Scope and Nature of Exception Clauses 96
A. Striking the Right Balance 96
B. Network of Corresponding “Rights” and “Obligations” 98
Ⅴ.Conclusion 99
Chapter Four Two Models of Non-Economic Justification Clauses in WTO Law： GATT/GATS versus SPS/TBT 101
Ⅰ.Introduction 101
Ⅱ.Non-Economic Exception Clauses in GATT and GATS：The“Traditional Approach” 101
A. Classifying Exception Clauses： Economic versus Non-Economic Objectives 101
B. Drafting History 103
C. The Rule-Exception Relationship 105
D. Justification as a Two-Tier Test 112
Ⅲ.Non-Economic Justification Provisions in the SPS and TBT Agreements： The “New Approach” 117
A. Background 117
B. Regulatory Philosophy and Structure of the SPS and TBT Agreements： Justification Inherent in the Rules 118
Ⅳ.Conclusion 121
PART TWO NON-ECONOMIC JUSTIFICATION IN GATT AND GATS 125
Chapter Five The Non-Economic Grounds of Justification in Art ⅩⅩ GATT and Art ⅩIⅣ GATS 125
Ⅰ.Introductory Remarks 125
A. Non-Economic Nature 125
B. Autonomous Legal Concepts 127
Ⅱ.Explicit Grounds of Justification 128
A. Public Morals 128
B. Public Order 143
C. Human， Animal or Plant Life or Health 149
D. Conservation of Exhaustible Natural Resources 161
E. Securing Compliance with Laws or Regulations 169
F. Other Grounds of Justification 180
Ⅲ.Implicit Grounds of Justification 182
A. Environment 182
B. Human Rights 189
C. Labour Standards 204
D. Culture 211
Chapter Six Substantive and Procedural Conditions for the Invocation of Art ⅩⅩ GATT and Art ⅩⅣ GATS 225
Ⅰ.Introductory Remarks 225
Ⅱ.Level of Protection 225
A. Introduction 225
B. Dispute Settlement Practice 226
Ⅲ.Necessity Test 229
A. Judicial Development of the Concept of “Necessity” 230
B. Evaluation of the Necessity Test in a Comparative Context 243
C. Lessons for the Necessity Test in WTO Law 263
Ⅳ.“Relating to” Test 265
A. Judicial Development 266
B. Evaluation of the “Relating to” Test 269
Ⅴ.Introductory Clause （“Chapeau”） 272
A. Drafting History 272
B. Purpose and Function of the Chapeau 273
C. The Individual Requirements of the Chapeau 278
D. Similar Concerns in the Second Sentence of Art 30 EC 291
E. Evaluation 295
Ⅵ.The Lawfulness of Trade Measures with Extraterritorial Focus 297
A. Introduction 297
B. “Unilateralism” and “Extraterritoriality” 299
C. Trade Restrictions with Extraterritorial Focus： Exercise of Extraterritorial Jurisdiction？ 304
D. Evaluation under Art ⅩⅩ GATT and Art ⅩⅣ GATS 308
E. Conclusion 326
PART THREE NON-ECONOMIC JUSTIFICATION IN THE SPS AND TBT AGREEMENTS 331
Chapter SevenNon-Economic Justification Provisions in the SPS Agreement 331
Ⅰ.SPS Agreement 331
A. Drafting History and Background 332
B. Scope and Purpose 333
C. Regulatory Philosophy 335
Ⅱ.Relationship with GATT and other WTO Agreements 338
Ⅲ.Grounds of Justification 339
Ⅳ.Substantive and Procedural Requirements 341
A. Basic Rights and Obligations 341
B. Appropriate Level of Protection 343
C. Scientific Justification 350
D. Design and Application of SPS Measures 355
Ⅴ.Standard of Review and Risk Regulation 359
Ⅵ.Conclusion 360
Chapter EightNon-Economic Justification Provisions in the TBT Agreement 365
Ⅰ.TBT Agreement 365
A. Drafting History and Background 366
B. Scope and Purpose 368
C. Regulatory Philosophy 369
Ⅱ.Relationship with GATT and other WTO Agreements 371
Ⅲ.Grounds of Justification 373
A. Legitimate Objectives 373
B. Trade Measures with Extraterritorial Focus 374
Ⅳ.Substantive and Procedural Requirements 375
A. Non-Discrimination 375
B. Level of Protection 375
C. Necessity 376
D. Obligation to Use International Standards 379
Ⅴ.Conclusion 384
Overall Conclusion 387
Bibliography 399
Appendix： Relevant Treaty Provisions 413
Index 419