PART Ⅰ INTRODUCTION AND BASIC DEFINITIONS 1
1 Preliminary Considerations 3
Documents and Questioned Documents 3
Examiner of Questioned Documents 4
Standards 6
Reference Collections 6
Instruments 7
Scientific Examination of Documents 8
Probability of Accidental Coincidence 9
Nonidentity of Source 10
Natural Variation 10
The Opinion 11
Basis of Effective Court Presentation 11
Indefinite Findings 12
Scope of Document Problems 12
2 Definitions of Terms 14
General Terms 15
Handwriting 18
Typewriting 22
Altered Documents 24
Other Identification Problems 25
Photographs and Other Reproductions 27
PART Ⅱ WHAT EXAMINATION OF A DOCUMENT MAY REVEAL 31
3 Instruments and Materials Used to Prepare Documents 33
The Pen 33
Writing Inks 39
Pencils 42
Crayons and Marking Pencils 46
The Typewriter 46
Computer Printouts 57
Carbon Copies 58
Typewriter Ribbons 61
Correction Liquid and Paper 65
Adding Machines, Calculators, and Cash Registers 66
Mechanical Recording Devices 68
Check Writers 69
Hand and Impression Stamps 71
Mimeograph and Office Duplicating Methods 76
Address Stencils and Plates 78
Printed Matter 79
Paper Examination 82
Carbon Paper 88
Seals and Authenticating Devices 90
Adhesive Stamps 91
Grouping and Binding Devices 91
Conclusions 94
4 Alterations in Documents 95
Erasures 96
Associated Evidence 106
Cutting 106
Interlineations and Additions 108
Obliterated or Smeared-over Writing 117
Altered Photocopies 122
Proof of an Unaltered Document 122
Conclusions 124
5 Damaged Documents 125
Damage and Obliteration by Water 125
Light-Faded Inks 126
Stained Documents 130
Torn Documents 131
Charred Documents 132
Conclusions 134
6 Accidental Markings and Impressions on a Document 135
Latent Fingerprints 135
Writing Offsets 138
Impressed Writing 138
Foreign Traces 141
Conclusions 142
7 Additional Clues for the Investigator 143
Indicative Information 143
Illegible Handwriting 146
Blank Papers 146
Secret Inks 148
Ballot Frauds 148
Conclusions 149
PART Ⅲ DISCOVERY OF FACTS BY COMPARISON WITH KNOWN MATERIAL 151
8 Identification of Handwriting 153
Writing Forms and Qualities 154
Arrangement of Writing 158
Writing Variation 158
Class and Individual Characteristics 160
Identification in a Practical Situation 160
Nonidentity of Writings 161
Typical Problems Involving Writing Identification 162
Holographic Wills 165
Inhibiting Factors 168
Disguise 168
Conclusions 171
9 Identification of Signatures and Detection of Forgery 172
Genuine Signatures 173
Unusual Genuine Signatures 176
Detection of Forgery 182
Forgery of Holographic Documents 192
Identifying the Forger 199
Assisted or Guided Signatures 202
Identification of Initials and Illiterates' Marks 204
Conclusions 207
10 Identification of Handlettering and Numerals 210
Handlettering 210
Numerals 217
Conclusions 223
11 Typewriting Identification 224
Printing Defects 226
Machine Defects 228
Variation 229
Transitory Defects 231
Basis of Identification 233
Typebar Machine 233
Proportional Spacing Typewriting 235
Single Element Type Ball Machines 237
Proportional Spacing Single Element Machines 243
The Electronic Typewriter 246
Identification Problems 248
Identification of the Typist 250
Identification by Typewriter Ribbon 252
Forgery of a Typewriter 255
Disguised Typewriting 258
12 Other Mechanical Impressions, Including Check Writers and Printing Identifications 260
Check Writers and Check-Writing Units 260
Adding-Machine Tapes and Cash-Register Receipts 262
Other Recording Machines 264
Computer Printouts 266
Time Clocks and Date Stamps 266
Printed Matter 268
13 Age of a Document 273
Dating by Materials 274
Dating by Changes in Materials 280
Dating by Comparison 282
Dating by Chance Marks 291
Combination of Factors 294
Conclusions 295
PART Ⅳ THE ATTORNEY-INVESTIGATOR'S ROLE IN A QUESTIONED DOCUMENT PROBLEM 297
14 Preparation and Collection of Handwriting Standards 299
Collected Standards 299
Sources of Standards 308
Request Standards 310
Special Considerations for Request Signatures 320
Combination of Request and Collected Standards 321
Standards for Special Problems 322
Standards Prepared Under Cross-examination 327
Handlettered Standards 328
Conclusions 329
15 Typewriting Standards 331
Standards for Machine Identification 331
Single Element Standards 343
Standards to Identify the Operator 346
Conclusions 348
16 Care,Handling,and Preservation of Documents 349
Protcctive Enveelopes 350
Earlv Submission for Examination 350
Proper Storage 351
Avoid Excessive Handling 352
Do Not Mark 353
Do Not Fold,Cut,or Tear 355
Do Not Allow "Amateur" Testing 357
Charred Documents 359
Conclusions 360
17 Reproduction of Documents 361
Photographs 362
Today's Dry-Photocopying Systems 369
Earlier Reproduction Methods 373
Other Methods 379
Analysis of Photocopies 384
Fraudulent Photocopies 385
PART Ⅴ THE DOCUMENT PROBLEM GOES TO COURT 389
18 Preparation for Trial 391
The Document Examiner's Preparation 391
Special Reports and Conferences 399
19 In the Court Room 403
Proofof Standards 403
The Document Examiner's Testimony 404
Purpose of the Doc ument Examiner in Court 413
Document Examiners as Opposing Witnesses 413
Use of More than One Expert Witness 414
Affidavits and Depositions by Document Examiners 415
Conclusions 416
Index 417