Introduction 1
1 The development of a judicialised international trade dispute resolution system at the World Trade Organisation 11
1.1 Introduction 11
1.2 Definition of judicialisation 12
1.2.1 Quasi-judicial？ 13
1.2.2 International Law dispute resolution models 15
1.2.3 Tomuschat taxonomy of an international judicial body 16
1.3 Background to the GATT dispute resolution procedures 17
1.4 The development of the GATT/WTO dispute settlement procedures 18
1.5 The central tenet of the GATT system 20
1.6 Practical implementation of the GATT dispute settlement process 21
1.7 Understanding regarding notification， consultation， dispute settlement and surveillance 21
1.8 Drawhacks of the GATT dispute settlement process 23
1.9 The WTO and the Dispute Settlement Understanding 26
1.9.1 The Dispute Settlement Body 26
1.9.2 The panel 27
1.9.3 The Appellate Body 28
1.9.4 Negative consensus 29
1.9.5 Enforcement 29
1.10 Judicialised dispute resolution at the WTO 31
1.11 An arbitration or judicial system at the WTO？ 34
1.12 Effectiveness of the WTO DSU 36
1.13 A study of the effectiveness of the WTO DSU 40
1.14 Conclusion 41
2 The WTO dispute resolution mechanism in comparison to other international regimes 43
2.1 The context of the WTO DSU in international dispute resolution organisations 43
2.2 The WTO DSU in the context of the International Court ofJustice 43
2.3 The WTO DSU in the context of the European Court ofJustice 46
2.4 The WTO DSU， the North American Free Trade Agreement and the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa 49
2.4.1 The 1994 North American Free Trade Agreement 51
2.4.2 The Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa Court of Justice 54
2.5 The WTO DSU in the context of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species and the Convention on Biological Diversity 56
2.5.1 The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species 57
2.5.2 The Convention on Biological Diversity 60
2.6 Conclusion 61
3 The role of previous decisions in the WTO DSU and their impact on member state behaviour 63
3.1 Introduction 63
3.2 International law and reliance on dispute resolution decisions 65
3.3 Judicial decision making in the jurisprudence of the ICJ 68
3.4 Stare decisis and the International Court ofJustice 71
3.5 Distinguishing a case at the International Court ofJustice 75
3.6 Departing from a previous decision at the International Court ofJustice 77
3.7 Summary of precedent in international law and the International Court ofJustice 83
3.8 Precedent under the GATT 1947 84
3.9 The judicialised WTO dispute resolution system and the role of precedent 88
3.10 Arguments against the existence of precedent in the WTO 92
3.11 Conclusion 93
4 Trade and environment in the international legal order 95
4.1 Introduction 95
4.2 Context of trade and environment in the international law arena 96
4.3 Free market economics and the environment 98
4.4 The environmental view of the trade—environment debate 104
4.5 The environmental law context 113
4.5.1 The Convention on Biological Diversity 114
4.5.2 The Kyoto Protocol on climate change 117
4.5.3 The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety （CPB） 121
4.6 Conclusion 126
5 The DSB and MEAs 129
5.1 Introduction 129
5.2 Choosing a forum for dispute settlement 132
5.3 Dispute resolution mechanisms of Multilateral Environmental Agreements 136
5.3.1 CITES 136
5.3.2 The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer 138
5.3.3 The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposals 141
5.4 The Doha agenda and the MEA/WTO relationship 144
5.5 Commentaries on the WTO and its interaction with MEAs 148
5.6 Conclusion 151
6 Environment under the WTO and the CTE 153
6.1 Introduction 153
6.2 The environment under the WTO 154
6.2.1 The historical context 156
6.3 The WTO CTE terms of reference 160
6.3.1 The ten areas of work of the CTE 162
6.4 The Doha Development Agenda and the work of the Committee on Trade and Environment 164
6.5 Other areas of work of the CTE 170
6.5.1 TRIPS and the Committee on Trade and the Environment 171
6.5.2 Environmental labelling and the CTE 173
6.5.3 CTE work in relation to Article ⅩⅩ GATT 175
6.6 Impact of the CTE on the trade and environment debate 176
6.7 Conclusion 179
7 Application of Article ⅩⅩ in the trade—environment context 181
7.1 Introduction 181
7.2 Treaty rules of relevance to the trade—environment debate 182
7.2.1 The environment in other WTO agreements 184
7.2.2 The precautionary principle in the WTO agreements 191
7.3 Article xx and ‘like’ products 192
7.4 The operation of the dispute resolution system and environmental measures 194
7.4.1 The role of the panel in trade—environment dispute resolution 196
7.5 The interpretation of Article ⅩⅩ （g） through the DSU process 198
7.6 The interpretation of Article ⅩⅩ （b） through the DSU process 201
7.7 The chapeau of Article ⅩⅩ： tests for compliance 205
7.7.1 Tests to determine compliance of a measure with the WTO under the chapeau of Article ⅩⅩ 207
7.7.2 Environmental criticisms of the chapeau of Article ⅩⅩ tests 217
7.8 Conclusion 219
Conclusion 221
Index 231