Part Ⅰ The Philosophical Context of the Minimum Voting Age Question 3
1 Alternative Philosophical Perspectives on the Origin and Nature of Human Rights 3
1.1 The Embattled Notion of Universal Human Rights: Introduction 3
1.2 The Embattled Notion of Universal Human Rights 4
1.3 On Whether the Notion of Human Rights is Intrinsically Inter-Subjective 5
1.4 On Whether Appreciating One’s ‘Right to Have Rights’ Requires a Certain Level of Cognitive Competence 7
1.5 On Discovering One’s Human Rights 8
1.6 Evaluating Various Perspectives on the Origin of the Notion of Human Rights 10
1.6.1 The Discourse Notion of the Origin of Human Rights 10
1.6.2 The Protest Notion of the Origin of Human Rights 11
1.6.3 Human Rights Concepts as the Products of Inter-Subjective Agreements 11
1.7 A Critique of the Post-Modern View of Human Rights as Context-Specific and of the Pre-Disposition to a Non-Interventionist Stance 12
1.8 Analysis of the Alan Dershowitz Model of the Origin of Human Rights Notions 13
1.9 Challenging the Political Conception of Human Rights 14
Part Ⅱ Socio-Cultural Factors and the Minimum Voting Age 21
2 Examples of Contextual Factors in the Youth Struggle for the Vote 21
2.1 Historical Examples of Voting Rights for Persons Below the Usual Age of Majority for Political Citizenship in their Particular Societies 21
2.2 Youth in the ‘Developing World’: Adult Responsibilities but Still No Right to Vote 22
Part Ⅲ Voting Age Eligibility: Human Rights Issue or Social Policy Matter? 29
3 The Human Rights Imperative and Minimum Voting Age 29
3.1 The Gatekeeper Model of Recognition of a Human Rights Claim as Legitimate and it’s Application to the Youth Voting Rights Struggle: Introduction 29
3.1.1 The Clifford Bob Model on the Process for International Legitimization of ‘New’ Human Rights Claims 32
3.2 The Devolution of the Youth Voting Age Struggle from ‘Human Rights Struggle’ to ‘Social Policy Issue’: The Canadian Example 33
3.3 The Supreme Court of Canada’s Downgrading of the Youth Human Rights Struggle for the Vote to a Social Policy Issue 38
3.3.1 Acknowledgement by the Supreme Court of Canada in Sauve of the Fundamental Nature of the Right in Question （Voting Rights） 39
3.3.2 The SCC Denial—When the Rights Holders Are Young People Under 18 Years—that Age Restrictions on the Vote Need to be Justified by the Government as Compatible with the Values of a Free and Democratic State 39
3.3.3 The Supreme Court of Canada’s Holding that the Government’s General Social and Political Philosophy is an Unconstitutional Basis for Denial of the Vote to Canadian Citizens with the Exception of Canadians Under Age 18 Years 42
3.3.4 The s.3 Canadian Charter Guarantee of Universal Suffrage as Shielded from Suspension under the Notwithstanding Clause （s.33 of the Charter） 45
3.4 Disenfranchisement of Citizens under Age 18 Years—the ‘Taking Away’ of a Pre-existing Inherent Fundamental Human Right and an Ongoing Human Rights Violation 47
3.5 The Right to Vote as an Indicia of Moral Worth: The Example of Suffrage Movements for Women and Felons and Lessons Regarding the Youth Voting Rights Struggle 50
3.5.1 The Exclusionary Aspects of Various Voting Rights Movements and the Implications for the Perceived Moral Worth of the Citizen 50
3.5.2 Opponents to the Vote at 16 and Their Refusal to Acknowledge the Impact of an Age-Based Exclusion in the Vote on the Perceived Moral Worth of 16- and 17-Year-Olds as Citizens 52
3.6 Voting Rights and the Issue of Personal Autonomy 54
3.7 A More Proportional Response to the Question of Age Considerations and the Vote: A Model Which Does Not Incorporate an Absolute Bar on Voting for Under 18s 58
3.7.1 Introduction 58
3.7.2 Voting Rights for Youth Aged 14 Years and Older but Under 18 Years 59
3.7.3 Voting Rights for Persons under Age 14 Years 61
3.7.4 The Proxy Voting Notion 65
3.7.5 Philosophical Problems with the Notion of a Proxy Vote on Behalf of Minors 66
Part Ⅳ A Victory for the Vote at 16 in Austria Goes Largely Ignored in Other States 73
4 Austria and the Vote at 16 73
4.1 ‘Are We There Yet?’: The 2007 Lowering of the Minimum Voting Age to 16 in Austria Cast as a Political Policy Choice and Not an Affirmation of an Inherent Fundamental Human Right 73
Part Ⅴ Rationalizing of the Violation of U.K.Youth’s Inherent Right to Suffrage 81
5 The U.K.Example of Resistance to the Vote at 16: The U.K.Electoral Commission and Select U.K.Social Scientists 81
5.1 The U.K.Electoral Commission’s Under-Cutting of the Youth Voting Rights Issue as a Fundamental Human Rights Matter 81
5.2 Opposition from U.K.Social Scientists to Lowering the Voting Age to 16 in the United Kingdom 88
Part Ⅵ The 26th Amendment to the U.S.Constitution and Eligible Voting Age 99
6 The 26th Amendment to the U.S.Constitution: Does it Really Make Age Discrimination in the Vote Against Under 18s Constitutional? The Broader Lessons 99
6.1 The Pre-1971 Movement to Lower the U.S. Minimum Voting Age From 21 Years to 18 Years: Lessons for the Contemporary Struggle for a Minimum Voting Age of 16 Years 99
6.1.1 Recognizing the Potential Power of the Youth Vote 99
6.2 Lessons to be Learned from The U.S. Congressional Debates on Lowering the U.S. Voting Age from 21 to 18 Years 102
6.2.1 On Immutable Characteristics and Whether the Denial of the Vote to Under 18s Constitutes Age Discrimination 102
6.2.2 On Why the Absolute Bar Against Under 18s Voting is Unconstitutionally Discriminatory 106
6.2.3 The Constitutional Right to Vote Versus Age Discrimination in Access to the Vote 110
6.2.4 On Whether the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and the U.S. Constitution Provide Protection Against Age-Based Discrimination in Voting Only for Those Aged 18 Years and Older 113
6.2.5 Unconstitutional Barriers to the Vote Incorporated in Electoral Law as Purported ‘Standard Qualifications’ for the Franchise 120
6.2.6 More Commentary on the 26th Amendment to the U.S.Constitution Regarding Voting Rights 121
6.2.7 Ethnic, Color and Gender Discrimination in the Vote: Are They Analogous to Age-Based Restrictions on the Franchise? 122
6.2.8 Misinterpretation of the Wording of the 26th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution on the Issue of Age Discrimination in the Vote 125
6.3 A Few Additional Comments Regarding the Alberta Teen Voting Rights Case 126
Part Ⅶ Barriers Coming From Unlikely Sources to Youth’s Struggle to Access the Basic Human Right to Suffrage 133
7 The Youth Vote as a Human Right and Resistance from High Profile International and National Human Rights Gatekeepers 133
7.1 Children as a Minority Group: Reframing the Youth Voting Issue as a Human Rights Struggle 133
7.1.1 HIV/AIDS Affected Children and Youth and the Implications for Understanding the Youth Vote as a Basic Human Right 133
7.2 The Role of International Organizations and Institutions in Stalemating the Youth Voting Rights Movement: An Example 136
7.3 Opposition from Huuman Rights Organizations Including the United Nations, High Profile NGOs and Individual States to the Youth Voting Rights Struggle 141
7.4 More on Barriers to the Youth Vote 152
7.5 The Youth Vote at 16 as a Basic Human Right Versus a‘Special Right’ 154
7.6 Examples of High Prortle National Organizations and Their Contribution to De-legitimizing the Contemporary Youth Voting Rights Struggle 156
7.6.1 The U.S.National Education Association and the Youth Voting Rights Struggle 157
7.6.2 Kids Voting USA: A Civics Education Initiative 160
7.6.3 The American Civil Liberties Union and the U.S.Youth Voting Rights Struggle 163
Part Ⅷ Re-Examining Alleged Rationales for the Bar Against the Vote for Under 18s 167
8 Unconstitutional Age-Based Discrimination in the Vote Applied on Account of Young Age 167
8.1 Human Rights and Electoral Law 167
8.1.1 Electoral Law as an Institutionalized Cultural Norm That De-legitimizes Youth’s Human Rights Claim for Suffrage 167
8.2 Lessons from the Dissenting Justices in Oregon v Mitchell on the Constitutional Basis for Youth Voting Rights 170
8.3 The Impact of Electoral Law on the Interests and Rights of Young People 175
8.4 Human Rights and Discrimination on Account of Young Age: Lessons from an Ontario Human Rights Tribunal Case 178
8.5 The Absence of a Compelling State Interest in Excluding 16- and 17-Year Olds from the Vote 180
8.6 Age-Based Restrictions on the Vote as an Invidious Form of Direct Discrimination 183
8.7 If You’re a Minor； We’ll Take Your Federal Political Campaign Contribution but Not Your Vote: Selective Constitutional Rights to Freedom of Expression and Association 188
8.8 Lessons on Unconstitutional Age-Based Restrictions on Freedom of Expression （i.e.Political Expression or ‘Political Speech’） from McConnell （United States Senator） v Federal Election Commission et al.and Their Applicability to the Vote at 16 Question 194
8.9 Inter-generational Injustice and the Exclusion of 16- and 17-year-olds from the Vote 199
8.10 Universal Suffrage, Free Expression and Freedom of Association versus Age-Based Voter Qualifications 201
8.11 Disenfranchisement of Minors Fallaciously Used as a Rationale for the Denial to Older Adolescents of Other Constitutionally-Protected Participation Rights 207
Part Ⅸ Voting Age Eligibility and the Societal Marginalization of Under 18s 217
9 Minors’ Perspectives on Their Citizenship Status 217
9.1 Minors’ Perceptions of Being Second-Class Citizens Due to Their Exclusion from the Vote 217
Part Ⅹ Unequal Treatment in Accessing the Inherent Right to Suffrage 227
10 Two Different Standards for Enfranchisement: A‘Rights Standard’ for Adults and a Supposed ‘Competency Qualication Standard’ for Minors 227
10.1 ‘Rights—Contingent’ versus ‘Qualifications—Contingent’ （i.e.Competency-Contingent） Suffrage 227
Part XI Recognizing the Vote at 16 Movement as a Fundamental Human Rights Struggle 237
11 Concluding Comments 237
References 251