Chapter1 Introduction 1
1.What is linguistics? 1
1.1 Definition 1
1.2 The scope of linguistics 2
1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics 4
1.3.1 Prescriptive vs.descriptive 4
1.3.2 Synchronic vs.diachronic 5
1.3.3 Speech and writing 5
1.3.4 Langue and parole 6
1.3.5 Competence and performance 7
2.What is language? 8
2.1 Definitions of language 8
2.2. Design features 11
Study questions 14
Chapter2 Phonology 15
1.The phonic medium of language 15
2.Phonetics 16
2.1 What is phonetics? 16
2.2 Organs of speech 17
2.3 Orthographic representation of speech sounds-broad and narrow transcriptions 20
2.4 Classification of English speech sounds 23
2.4.1 Classification of English consonants 23
2.4.2 Classification of English vowels 26
3.Phonology 29
3.1 Phonology and phonetics 29
3.2 Phone,phoneme,and allophone 31
3.3 Phonemic contrast,complementary distribution,and minimal pair 34
3.4.1 Sequential rules 36
3.4 Some rules in phonology 36
3.4.2 Assimilation rules 38
3.4.3 Deltion rule 39
3.5 Suprasegmental features-stress,tone,intonation 40
3.5.1 Stress 40
3.5.2 Tone 43
3.5.3 Intonation 43
Study questions 46
Chapter3 Morphology 48
1.Definition 48
2.Morpheme 49
2.1 Morpheme:the smallest meaningful unit of language 49
2.2 Types of morphemes 50
2.2.1 Free morphemes 50
2.2.2 Bound morphemes 51
2.2.3 Morphological rules 54
3.Compounding 55
3.1 Types of compound words 55
3.2 Features of compounds 56
Study questions 57
Chapter4 Syntax 59
1.Syntax as a system of rules 59
2.Sentence structure 61
2.1 The basic components of a sentence 61
2.2 Types of sentences 62
2.2.1 The simple sentence 62
2.2.2 The coordinate sentence 63
2.2.3 The complex sentence 64
2.3.1 The linear word order of a sentence 65
2.3 The linear and hierarchical structures of sentences 65
2.3.2 The hierarchical structure of a sentence 66
2.3.3 Tree diagrams of sentence structure 67
3.Syntactic categories 71
3.1 Lexical categories 72
3.2 Phrasal categories 73
4.Grammatical relations 73
5.Combinatonal rules 75
5.1 Phrase structure rules 76
5.2 The recursiveness of phrase structure rules 78
5.3 X-bar theory 79
6.Syntactic movement and moement rules 81
6.1 NP-movement and WH-movement 82
6.3 D-structure and S-structure 83
6.2 Other types of movement 83
6.4 Move a-a general movement rule 85
7.Toward a theory of universal grammar 85
7.1 General principles of Universal Grammar 86
7.2 The parameters of Universal Grammar 87
Study questions 88
Chapter5 Semantics 91
1.What is semantics? 91
2.Some views concerning the study of meaning 91
2.1 The naming theory 92
2.2 The conceptualist view 92
2.3 Contextualism 93
2.4 Behaviorism 95
3.Lexical meaning 95
3.1 Sense and reference 96
3.2 Major sense relations 97
3.2.1 Synonymy 97
3.2.2 Polysemy 100
3.2.3 Homonymy 101
3.2.4 Hyponymy 102
3.2.5 Antonymy 102
4.Sense relations between sentences 103
5.Analysis of meaning 106
5.1 Componential analysis-a way to analyze lexical meaning 106
5.2 Predication analysis-a way to analyze sentence meaning 107
study questions 110
1.2 Pragmatics vs.semantics 112
1.1 Definition 112
1.What is pragmatics? 112
Chapter6 Pragmatics 112
1.3 Context 113
1.4 Sentence meaning vs.utterance meaning 114
2.Speech act theory 115
3.Principle of conversation 121
Study questions 123
Chapter7 Historical Linguistics 125
1.The purpose and significance of the historical study of language 125
2.The nature of language change 126
3.The historical development of English 127
3.1 Major periods in the history of English 127
3.1.1 Old English 129
3.1.2 Middle English 129
3.1.3 Modern English 130
3.2 Linguistic change of English 131
3.2.1 Sound change 131
3.2.2 Morphological change 134
3.2.3 Syntactic change 137
3.2.4 Lexical change 141
3.2.5 Semantic change 145
4.Language family 148
4.1 Classifying genetically related languages 149
4.2 The Indo-European language family 151
5.The causes of language change 153
5.1 Sound assimilation 155
5.3 Internal borrowing 156
5.2 Rule simplification and regulariztin 156
5.4 Elaboration 157
5.5 Sociological triggers 158
5.6 Cultural transmission 159
5.7 Children s approximation toward the adult grammar 160
Study questions 160
Chapter8 Sociolinguistics 164
1.Language variation 164
1.1 Speech community 164
1.2 Speech variety 165
1.3 Regional variation 166
1.4 Social variation 167
1.5 stylistic variation 168
1.6 Idiolectal variation 169
2.1 Standard and nonstandard language 170
2.Standard and nonstandard language 170
2.2 Lingua francas 172
2.3 Pidgins 174
2.4 Creoles 176
3.Diglossia and bilingualism 177
3.1 Diglossia 177
3.2 Bilingualism 179
4.Ethnic dialect 181
4.1 Black English,a case study of ethnic dialect 181
4.2 The social environment of Black English 184
5.Social dialect 185
5.1 Education varieties 186
5.2 Age varieties 186
5.3 Gender varieties 187
5.4 Register varieties 193
5.5 Address terms 197
5.6 Slang 199
5.7 Linguistic taboo 201
5.8 Euphemism 203
Study questions 206
Chapter9 Psycholinguistics 210
1.The biological foundations of language 210
1.1 The case of Phineas Gage 210
1.2 The human brain 212
1.3 Brain lateralization 213
2.Linguistic lateralization 214
2.1 Left hemispheric dominance for language 214
2.2 Dichotic Listening ressearch 215
3.The language centers 216
3.1 Broca s area 217
3.2 Wernicke s area 218
3.3 The angular gyrus 219
3.4 Language perception,comprehension and production 219
4.The critical period for language acquisition 220
4.1 The critical period hypothesis 220
4.2 The case of Genie and the degeneration of language facuity with age 222
5.Language and thought 225
5.1 Early views on language and thought 225
5.2 The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis 226
5.3 Arguments against the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis 228
5.3.1 Words and meaning 229
5.3.2 Grammatical structure 230
5.3.3 Translation 231
5.3.5 Languange and world views 232
5.3.4 Second language acquisition 232
5.4 Understanding the relation of language and thought 233
5.4.1 Major functions of language 233
5.4.2 The development and blending of language and thought 233
5.4.3 Thinking without language 234
5.4.4 Language as a conventional coding system to express thought 235
5.4.5 The ways in which language affects thorght 236
Study questions 237
Chapter10 Language Acquisition 240
1.First language acquisition 240
1.1 The biological basis of language acquisition 240
1.2 Language acquisition as the acquisition of grammatical rules 242
1.3 The role of input and interaction 243
1.4 The role of instruction 245
1.5 The role of correction and reinforcement 246
1.6 The role of imitation 247
2.Stages of first language acquisition 248
2.1 The prelinguistic stage 250
2.2 The one-word stage 251
2.3 The two-word stage 252
2.4 The multiword stage 255
3.The development of the grammatical system 257
3.1 The development of phonology 258
3.2 The development of syntax 259
3.3 The development of morphology 262
3.4 The development of vocabulary and semantics 263
4.Second language acquisition 264
4.1 Acquisition vs.learning 265
4.2 Transfer and interference 266
4.3 Error Analysis and the natural route of SLA developnent 268
4.4 Interlanguage and fossitization 269
4.5 The role of input 270
4.6 The role of formal instruction 271
4.7 Individual learner factors 272
4.7.1 The optimum age for second language acquisiticn 273
4.7.2 Motivation 273
4.7.3 Acculturation 274
4.7.4 Personality 275
Study questions 276
Suggested Answers to Study Questions 278
An English-Chinese Glossary 304
后记 312
现代语言学自学考试大纲 313