Table of Contents 1
Acknowledgements 1
1． Semantic Levels and Approaches 1
1．1 Language is hierarchic 1
序（一） 2
1．2 Meaning and reality 2
序（二） 3
前言 4
1．3 Semantic levels and approaches 4
Preface〔K．KUIPER〕 5
2．1 The medium of language is sound 6
2． A Phonetic Approach 6
2．2 Language is both arditrry and non -arbitrary 7
2．3 Language is largely arbitrary 10
2．3．1 Sounds and words 10
2．3．2 Sonds adn 'morphemes' 11
2．4 Phonetic elicitors of semantic traits 12
2．5 Prosody and meaning 13
2．5．1 Prosodic features 13
2．5．2 The meaning of stress 14
2．5．3 The meanig of intonation 16
3． A Grammatical Approach 22
3．1 Morpheme meaning 22
3．1．1 The ernergence of morphology 22
3．1．2 Morphemes :the smallest units of meaning 23
3．1．3 Analysing words 25
3．1．4 Morphemes,morphs and allomorphs 27
3．1．5 Grammatical conditioning , lexical conditioning and suppleion 35
3．1．6 Sense and grammaticul meaning 37
3．1．7 The nature of morphemes 38
3．2 Word meaning 42
3．2．1 Introducion 42
3．2．2 Words and grammatical caiegories 44
3．2．3 Words and lexical items 45
3．2．4 Problesm with pinning down word meaning 50
3．2．5 Lexical relations 54
3．2．6 Derivational relations 64
3．2．7 Summary 66
3．3 Idiom meaning 67
3．3．1 Scope of idioms 67
3．3．2 Some issues in the study of idioms 68
3．3．3 The analyzability of idioms 75
3．3．4 The cognitive motivation for idiomatic meaning 81
3．3．5 Idioms and meton ymy 89
3．4 Sentence meaning :meaningful and meaningles sentences 91
3．4．2 Grammaticality,acceptability and meaningfulness 92
3．4．3 The meaning fulness of sentences 94
3．4．4 Corrigibility and translatability 98
3．4．5 Verfiability and verificationism 99
3．4．6 Propositions and propositional content 100
3．4．7 Non-factual significance and emotivism 103
3．4．8 Truth-conditions 104
3．4．9 Tautologies and contradictions 108
4． Alogical Approach 111
4．1 Introduction 111
4．2 Set thery 112
4．2．1 Sets and elements 112
4．2．2 Relations between sets 113
4．2．3 Operations on sets 114
4．2．4 Ordered N-tuples 117
4．3 Inference and logical analysis of sentences 118
4．3．1 inference 118
4．3．2 Sentences and truth 119
4．3．3 Sentences and propositions 120
4．3．4 The depth of the logical andlysis 121
4．4 Propositional logic 122
4．4．1 Connectives 122
4．4．2 The Meaning of the logical connectives 122
4．4．3 The syntax and semantics of propositioanal calculus 126
4．4．4 Syntax 127
4．4．5 Semantics 129
4．5 Predicate logic 132
4．5．1 Extending the logical analysis 132
4．5．2 Quantifjers 135
4．5．3 Summary of the syntax of predicate logic 137
4．5．4 The semantics of predicate logic 138
5．1 The scope of philosophy of language 143
5． A Philosophical Approach 143
5．2 Philosophical semantics 147
5．2．1 Question 1:How is meaning possible? 148
5．2．2 Question 2:What kinds of meaning are possible? 152
5．2．3 Linguistic semantics as linguistics 155
5．3 Some basic topics in philosophical semantics 155
5．3．1 Truth and meaning 156
5．3．2 Reference and descriptions 158
5．3．3 Names and demonstratives 161
6． A Pragmatic Approach 167
6．1 Setting the scene 167
6．1．1 Meaning as use 167
6．1．2 Pragmatics 168
6．1．3 Utterances 169
6．1．4 Levels of meaning 170
6．2 Speech act theory 171
6．2．1 Performatives 171
6．2．2 Speech acts 174
6．2．3 Locution,illocution,perlocution 175
6．2．4 Locutionary acts 176
6．2．5 illocutionary force 182
6．2．6 Case study :illocutionary act of promising 188
6．2．7 Case study:illocutionary act of promising 196
6．2．8 Propositional aclc 198
6．3．1 lntroduction 199
6．3 Conversational implicature 199
6．3．2 H．P．Grice 200
6．3．3 lmplicature 200
6．3．4 Cooperative principle 204
6．4 Pragmatic presupposition 221
7．A Cognitive Approach 225
7．1 Cognitive semantics 225
7．1．1 Cognitive linguistics as an approach 225
7．1．2 Three fundamental characteristics of cognitive linguistics 227
7．1．3 Linguistic categorization is the major focus 227
7．2．2 Four characteristics of prototypicality 229
7．2．1 Prototypes 229
7．2 Prototype theory 229
7．2．3 Case study of prototype:fruit 231
7．3 Levels of categorization 235
7．3．1 Basic level categories of organisms a and concrete objects 238
7．3．2 Superordinate categories 238
7．3．3 Subordinate categories 241
8．A Functional Approach 248
8．1 Functions of language:What do we use language for? 248
8．2 Towards a functional grammar 249
8．2．1 Notions of grammar 249
8．2．2 Building on trdditional grammar 252
8．3．1 Whai kind of metalanguage do we need to discuss language as experience? 256
8．3 Exploring experiential meanings 256
8．3．2 Clause constituency in the experiential function 257
8．3．3 Material processes 258
8．3．4 Relational processes 260
8．3．5 Projecting Processes 261
8．4 Exploring interpersonal meanings 262
8．4．1 What metalanguage do we need to discuss language as interaction? 262
8．4．2 The finite 263
8．4．3 The subject-fjnite relationship 264
8．4．4 Mood, predicatgor,adjunct,complement 265
8．4．5 Residue 266
8．4．6 How does this metalanguage heip analyse and describe interaction? 267
8．5 Exploring textual meanings:Putting first things first 273
8．5．1 What metalanguage do we need to discuss the fjrst elements in a clause? 275
8．5．2 Identifying theme 276
8．5．3 Textual themes 277
8．5．4 Interpersonal theme 279
9． A Stylistic Approach 280
9．1 Stylistic meaning of words 280
9．2 Style and stylistics 282
9．3 The subject of linguostylistics 284
9．4 Synonymy as a linguostylistic category 287
10．A Social Approach 300
10．1 Language in social contexts 300
10．2 Fundamental concepts 300
10．3．1 Social stratification 303
10．3 Social differentiation of language 303
10．3．2 Social differentiation of English 304
10．3．3 Language and gender 307
10．3．4 Euphemism 310
10．3．5 Slang 312
10．3．6 Jargon and argot 315
11． An Anthropological Approach 321
11．1 Meaning,cognition ,and the domain of anthropological linguistics 321
11．2 Kinship 324
11．2．1 Kinship analysis 324
11．2．2 Universals of kinship 325
11．2．3 Relativist responses to universalist approaches to kinship 327
11．2．4 Summary 329
11．3 Color 330
11．3．1 The neutophysiology of color 330
11．3．2 Color categorization 334
11．3．3 Types of basic color terminologies 336
11．3．4 Universal constraints on basic color terminologies 341
11．3．5 Relativist responses to proposed universals of color terminologies 343
11．3．6 Summary 348
12．A Semiotic Approach 350
12．1 Defining semiotics 350
12．2 Semantics and semiotics 357
12．3 Semiotics as a theory of 'speech Acts':Austin and Searle 359
12．3．1 The scope of the 'Theory of Speech Acts' 359
12．3．2 Austin 's initial insight and its implications 361
12．3．3 'Felidcity'and infelicity 363
12．3．4 Austin 's revised theory 371
12．3．5 Searle's elaboration of the'Theory of Speech Acts' 375
13． A Psychological Approach 381
13．1 Psycholinguistics:the study of language processing 381
13．2 Methods of psycholinguistic research 382
13．2．1 Slips of the tongue 383
13．2．2 Experimental methods:words in the mind 384
14．A Historical Approach 389
14．1 Historical linguistics 389
14．2 Morphological change 389
14．2．1 Reanalysis and effect on meaning 389
14．2．2 Analogy 391
14．2．3 Morphologization 392
14．2．4 Change in morphological type 393
14．3 Lexical and semantic change 395
14．3．2 Shift in markedness 397
14．3．3 Taboo and euphemism 398
14．3．4 Mother -in-law language 401
14．3．5 Generalization and specialization 402
14．3．6 Melioration and pejoration 403
14．3．7 Metaphor and metonymy 404
14．3．8 Gresham's law of semantic change 406
14．3．9 Principles and tendencies in semantic change 407
Bibliography 410