Part one Communication and Intercultural Competence 1
1 Introduction to Intercultural Competence 2
The Imperative for Intercultural Competence 3
The Economic Imperative for Intercultural Competence 3
The Technological Imperative for Intercultural Competence 4
The Demographic Imperative for Intercultural Competence 6
The Peace Imperative for Intercultural Competence 8
Communication 9
Defining Communication 9
Characteristics of Communication 10
Interpersonal Communication 17
The Challenge of Communicating in an Intercultural World 19
Summary 22
For Discussion 23
For Further Reading 23
2 Culture and Intercultural Communication 24
Culture 24
Defining Culture for the Study of Communication 25
Culture and Related Terms 30
Why Cultures Differ 33
Forces That Maintain Cultural Differences 34
The Interrelatedness of Cultural Forces 44
Intercultural Communication 46
Examples of Intercultural Interactions 46
Similarities and Differences between Communicators 49
Definition of Intercultural Communication 52
Intercultural Communication and Related Terms 52
Summary 54
For Discussion 55
For Further Reading 55
3 Intercultural Communication Competence 56
The United States as an Intercultural Community 56
Metaphors of U.S.Cultural Diversity 58
What Do You Call Someone from the United States of America? 60
Cultural Groups in the United States 62
Competence and Intercultural Communication 64
Intercultural Communication Competence 64
The Components of Intercultural Competence 65
Basic Tools for Improving Intercultural Competence 72
The BASICs of Intercultural Competence 72
Description,Interpretation,and Evaluation 77
Summary 81
For Discussion 82
For Further Reading 82
Part two Cultural Differences in Communication 83
4 Cultural pattems and Communication: Foundations 84
Defining Cultural Patterns 85
Components of Cultural Patterns 87
Beliefs 87
Values 88
Norms 91
Social Practices 91
Characteristics of Cultural Patterns 91
The Functions of Cultural Patterns 92
An Overview of Cultural Patterns 94
Cultural Patterns and Intercultural Competence 105
Summary 107
For Discussion 108
For Further Reading 108
5 Cultural Patterns and Communication:Taxonomies 109
Hall's High-and Low-Context Cultural Taxonomy 110
Use of Covert and Overt Messages 111
Importance of Ingroups and Outgroups 113
Orientation to Time 114
Hofstede's Cultural Taxonomy 114
Individualism versus Collectivism 115
Uncertainty Avoidance 119
Power Distance 120
Masculinity versus Femininity 125
Long-Term versus Short-Term Time Orientation 128
Comparing Hofstede's Five Dimensions 129
Confucian Cultural Patterns 131
Cultural Taxonomies and Intercultural Competence 133
Summary 134
For Discussion 135
For Further Reading 135
6 Cultural Identity,Cultural Biases,and Intercultural Contact 136
Cultural Identity 137
The Nature of Identity 137
The Formation of Cultural Identity 139
Characteristics of Cultural Identity 141
Cultural Biases 142
Social Categorizing 144
Ethnocentrism 145
Stereotyping 148
Prejudice 151
Discrimination 153
Racism 154
Intercultural Contact 157
Dominance and Subordination between Groups 158
Attitudes among Cuhural Members 159
Outcomes of Intercultural Contact 160
Becoming an Interculturally Competent Communicator 167
Identity,Biases,Contact,and Intercultural Competence 168
Summary 170
For Discussion 171
For Further Reading 171
Part three Coding Intercultural Communication 173
7 Verbal Intercultural Communication 174
The Power of Language in Intercultural Communication 174
Definition of Verbal Codes 176
The Features of Language 177
Rule Systems in Verbal Codes 178
Interpretation and Intercultural Communication 183
Language,Thought,Culture,and Intercultural Communication 186
The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis of Linguistic Relativity 186
Language and Intercultural Communication 195
Verbal Codes and Intercultural Competence 203
Summary 206
For Discussion 206
For Further Reading 206
8 Nonverbal Intercultural Communication 208
Definition of Nonverbal Codes 208
Characteristics of Nonverbal Codes 210
Relationship of Nonverbal to Verbal Communication 210
Cultural Universals in Nonverbal Communication 211
Cultural Variations in Nonverbal Communication 212
Nonverbal Messages in Intercultural Communication 215
Body Movements 215
Space 218
Touch 221
Time 223
Voice 227
Other Nonverbal Code Systems 228
Synchrony of Nonverbal Communication Codes 229
Nonverbal Communication and Intercultural Competence 230
Summary 232
For Discussion 233
For Further Reading 233
9 The Effects of Code Usage in Intercultural Communication 234
Preferences in the Organization of Verbal Codes 235
Organizational Preferences in the Use of U.S.English 235
Organizational Preferences in Other Languages and Cultures 237
Cultural Variations in Persuasion 239
Persuasion in Intercultural Encounters 239
Cultural Differences in What Is Acceptable as Evidence 240
Cultural Differences in What Is Considered Reasonable 241
CulturaI Differences in Styles of Persuasion 243
Cultural Variations in the Structure of Conversations 248
Value of Talk and Silence 248
Rules for Conversations 251
Effects of Code Usage on Intercultural Competence 255
Summary 255
For Discussion 256
For Further Reading 256
Part four Communication in Intercultural Relationships 257
10 Intercultural Competence in Interpersonal Relationships 258
Cultural Variations in Interpersonal Relationships 258
Types of Interpersonal Relationships 259
Dimensions of Interpersonal Relationships 266
Dynamics of Interpersonal Relationships 268
The Maintenance of Face in Interpersonal Relationships 270
Types of Face Needs 271
Facework and Interpersonal Communication 273
Facework and Intercultural Communication 275
Improving Intercultural Relationships 276
Learning about People from Other Cultures 276
Sharing Oneself with People from Other Cultures 280
Handling Differences in Intercultural Relationships 283
Interpersonal Relationships and Intercultural Competence 285
Summary 286
For Discussion 286
For Further Reading 287
11 Episodes,Contexts,and Intercultural Interactions 288
Social Episodes in Intercultural Relationships 288
The Nature of Social Episodes 288
Components of Social Episodes 290
Contexts for Intercultural Communication 297
The Health Care Context 297
The Educational Context 302
The Business Context 308
Episodes,Contexts,and Intercultural Competence 319
Summary 319
For Discussion 319
For Further Reading 320
12 The Potential for Intercultural Competence 321
The Ethics of Intercultural Competence 322
When in Rome．．． 323
Are Cultural Values Relative or Universal? 325
Do the Ends Justify the Means? 325
Ethics—Your Choices 327
The Perils and Prospects for Intercultural Competence 327
Impact of National and International Events on Intercultural Communication 327
Forces That Pull Us Together and Apart 331
Summary 334
Concluding Remarks 334
For Discussion 335
For Further Reading 335
Resources 336
Intercultural Films 336
Online Resources 337
Notes 340
Photo Credits 370
Text Credits 372
Author Index 376
Subject Index 382