INTRODUCTION 1
CHAPTER Ⅰ．A brief survey of the history of linguistics 1
CHAPTER Ⅱ．Data and aims of linguistics:connexions with related sciences 6
CHAPTER Ⅲ．The object of study. 8
1．On defining a language 8
2．Linguistic structure:its place among the facts of language 11
3．Languages and their place in human affairs.Semiology 15
CHAPTER Ⅳ．Linguistics of language structure and linguistics of speech 18
CHAPTER Ⅴ．Internal and external elements of a language 21
CHAPTER Ⅵ．Representation of a language by writing. 24
1．Why it is necessary to study this topic 24
2．The prestige of writing:reasons for its ascendancy over the spoken word 24
3．Systems of writing 26
4．Causes of inconsistency between spelling and pronunciation 27
5．Consequences of this inconsistency 29
CHAPTER Ⅶ．Physiological Phonetics. 32
1．Definition of the subject 32
2．Transcription 33
3．Writing as evidence 34
APPENDIX PRINCIPLES OF PHYSIOLOGICAL PHONETICS 39
CHAPTER Ⅰ．Sound types. 39
1．On defining speech sounds 39
2．The vocal apparatus and how it works 41
3．Classification of sounds by oral articulation 44
CHAPTER Ⅱ．Sounds in spoken sequences. 50
1．Necessity of studying sounds in spoken sequences 50
2．Adduction and abduction 52
3．Combinations of adduction and abduction in the spoken sequence 54
4．Syllabic boundaries and vocalic peaks 57
5．Criticism of theories of syllabification 58
6．Duration of adduction and abduction 59
7．Sounds of aperture 4. Diphthongs. Questions of spelling 60
Editorial note 62
PART ONE GENERAL PRINCIPLES 65
CHAPTER Ⅰ．Nature of the linguistic sign. 65
1．Sign,signification,signal 65
2．First principle:the sign is arbitrary 67
3．Second principle:linear character of the signal 69
CHAPTER Ⅱ．Invariability and variability of the sign. 71
1．Invariability 71
2．Variability 74
CHAPTER Ⅲ．Static linguistics and evolutionary linguistics. 79
1．Internal duality of all sciences concerned with values 79
2．Internal duality and the history of linguistics 81
3．Examples of internal duality 83
4．Difference between the two orders illustrated by comparisons 87
5．Synchronic and diachronic linguistics.Their methods and principles contrasted 89
6．Synchronic laws and diachronic laws 90
7．Is there a panchronic point of view? 94
8．Consequences of the confusion of synchrony with diachrony 94
9．Conclusious 96
PART TWO SYNCHRONIC LINGUISTICS 99
CHAPTER Ⅰ．General observations 99
CHAPTER Ⅱ．Concrete entities of a language. 101
1．Entities and units．Definitions 101
2．Methods of delimitation 102
3．Practical difficulties of delimitation 103
4．Conclusion 105
CHAPTER Ⅲ．Identities,realities,values 106
CHAPTER Ⅳ．Linguistic value. 110
1．The language as thought organised in sound 110
2．Linguistic value:conceptual aspects 112
3．Linguistic value:material aspects 116
4．The sign as a whole 118
CHAPTER Ⅴ．Syntagmatic relations and associative relations. 121
1．Definitions 121
2．Syntagmatic relations 122
3．Associative relations 123
CHAPTER Ⅵ．The language mechanism. 126
1．Syntagmatic interdependences 126
2．Simultaneous functioning of both types of group 127
3．Absolute arbitrariness and relative arbitrariness 130
CHAPTER Ⅶ．Grammar and its subdivisions. 133
1．Definitions.Traditional divisions 133
2．Rational divisions 135
CHAPTER Ⅷ．Abstract entities in grammar 136
PART THREE DIACHRONIC LINGUISTICS 139
CHAPTER Ⅰ．General observations 139
CHAPTER Ⅱ．Sound changes. 143
1．Their absolute regularity 143
2．Conditioning of sound changes 143
3．Methodological considerations 145
4．Causes of sound change 146
5．The scope of sound change is unpredictable 150
CHAPTER Ⅲ．Grammatical consequences of phonetic evolution. 152
1．Breaking grammatical links 152
2．Obliteration of word-composition 153
3．There are no phonetic doublets 154
4．Alternation 155
5．Laws of alternation 157
6．Alternation and grammatical link 159
CHAPTER Ⅳ．Analogy. 160
1．Definition and examples 160
2．Analogies are not changes 162
3．Analogy as the creative principle in languages 164
CHAPTER Ⅴ．Analogy and evolution. 167
1．How an analogical innovation enters the language 167
2．Analogical innovations as symptoms of changes in interpretation 168
3．Analogy as a principle of renovation and conservation 170
CHAPTER Ⅵ．Popular etymology 172
CHAPTER Ⅶ．Agglutination. 175
1．Definition 175
2．Agglutination and analogy 176
CHAPTER Ⅷ．Diachronic units,identities and realities 178
APPENDICES 182
A．Subjective and objective analysis 182
B．Subjective analysis and determination of units smaller than the word 183
C．Etymology 187
PART FOUR GEOGRAPHICAL LINGUISTICS 189
CHAPTER Ⅰ．On the diversity of languages 189
CHAPTER Ⅱ．Geographical diversity:its complexity. 192
1．Coexistence of several languages in the seme place 192
2．Literary language and local dialect 193
CHAPTER Ⅲ．Causes of geographical diversity. 196
1．Time,the essential cause 196
2．Linguistic areas affected by time 198
3．Dialects have no natural boundaries 200
4．Languages have no natural boundaries 202
CHAPTER Ⅳ．Propagation of linguistic waves. 204
1．Force of intercourse and parochialism 204
2．A single principle underlying both forces 206
3．Linguistic differentiation in separate areas 206
PART FIVE QUESTIONS OF RETROSPECTIVE LINGUISTICS CONCLUSION 211
CHAPTER Ⅰ．The two perspectives of diachronic linguistics 211
CHAPTER Ⅱ．Earliest languages and prototypes 214
CHAPTER Ⅲ．Reconstructions. 217
1．Their nature and purpose 217
2．Degree of certainty of reconstructions 219
CHAPTER Ⅳ．Linguistic evidence in anthropology and prehistory. 221
1．Languages and races 221
2．Ethnicity 222
3．Linguistic paleontology 223
4．Linguistic types and group mentality 225
CHAPTER Ⅴ．Language families and linguistic types 227
INDEX 231
文库索引 237