Chapter 1 Language and Linguistics 1
1.1 The multifaceted nature of language 1
1.2 Features of language 2
1.3 Functions of language 5
1.4 Types of language 6
1.4.1 Natural languages and artificial languages 6
1.4.2 Genetic classification of natural languages 7
1.4.3 Typological classification of natural languages 7
1.5 The evolution of language 8
1.6 Linguistics：the scientific study of language 9
1.6.1 Linguistics as a science 9
1.6.2 Branches of linguistics 10
1.6.3 Schools of linguistics 12
1.6.4 Features of modern linguistics 12
Chapter 2 Phonetics：The Study of Speech Sounds 15
2.1 The study of speech sounds 15
2.2 The sound-producing mechanism 15
2.3 Phonetic transcription of speech sounds 17
2.3.1 Unit of representation 17
2.3.2 Phonetic symbols 17
2.4 Description of English consonants 17
2.5 Description of English vowels 20
2.6 Phonetic features and natural classes 21
Chapter 3 Phonology：The Study of Sound Systems and Patterns 27
3.1 The study of sound systems and patterns 27
3.2 Phonemes and allophones 27
3.3 Discovering phonemes 28
3.3.1 Contrastive distribution 28
3.3.2 Complimentary distribution 28
3.3.3 Free variation 29
3.3.4 The discovery procedure 29
3.4 Distinctive features and non-distinctive features 30
3.5 Phonological rules 30
3.6 Syllable structure 32
3.7 Sequence of phonemes 32
3.8 Suprasegmental features 33
3.8.1 Stress 33
3.8.2 Intonation 34
3.8.3 Tone 34
3.8.4 The functioning of stress and intonation in English 34
Chapter 4 Morphology：The Study of Word Structure 39
4.1 Word,lexeme and morphology 39
4.2 Morpheme：the minimal meaningful unit of language 39
4.3 Rootbase and stem 41
4.4 Classification of morphemes 42
4.4.1 Free and bound morphemes 42
4.4.2 Inflectional and derivational morphemes 42
4.5 Formation of English words 44
4.5.1 Derivation 44
4.5.2 Compounding 46
4.5.3 Other types of English word formation 47
Chapter 5 Syntax：The Analysis of Sentence Structure 53
5.1 Grammaticality 53
5.2 Knowledge of sentence structure 54
5.3 Different approaches to syntax 55
5.4 Transformational-generative grammar 56
5.4.1 The goal of a TG grammar 56
5.4.2 Syntactic categories 57
5.4.3 Phrase structure rules 58
5.4.4 Tree diagrams 59
5.4.5 Recursion and the infinitude of language 61
5.4.6 Subcategorization of the lexicon 63
5.4.7 Transformational rules 63
5.5 Systemic-functional grammar 67
5.5.1 Two perspectives of syntactic analysis：chain and choice 67
5.5.2 The three metafunctions 67
5.5.3 Transitivity：syntactic structure as representation of experience 68
5.5.4 Mood and modality：syntactic structure as representation of interaction 71
5.5.5 Theme and rheme：syntactic structure as organization of message 73
Chapter 6 Semantics：The Analysis of Meaning 81
6.1 The study of meaning 81
6.2 Reference and sense 82
6.2.1 Reference 82
6.2.2 Sense 82
6.3 Classification of lexical meanings 83
6.3.1 Referential meaning and associative meaning 83
6.3.2 Types of associative meaning 83
6.4 Lexical sense relations 84
6.4.1 Synonymy 85
6.4.2 Antonymy 86
6.4.3 Homonymy 86
6.4.4 Polysemy 87
6.4.5 Hyponymy 88
6.4.6 Meronymy 88
6.5 Describing lexical meaning：componential analysis 89
6.6 Words and concepts 90
6.6.1 Categorization 91
6.6.2 Prototypes 91
6.6.3 Hierarchies 92
6.7 Semantic relations of sentences 93
6.8 Metaphors 94
6.8.1 From rhetorical device to cognitive device 94
6.8.2 The components of metaphors 95
6.8.3 Features of metaphors 96
6.9 Metonymy 99
6.9.1 Conceptual metonymy 99
6.9.2 Types of metonymy 99
6.9.3 Relation between metaphor and metonymy 100
Chapter 7 Pragmatics：The Analysis of Meaning in Context 107
7.1 Pragmatics：an overview 107
7.2 Deixis and reference 108
7.2.1 Person deixis 108
7.2.2 Place deixis 109
7.2.3 Time deixis 109
7.2.4 Discourse deixis 109
7.2.5 Social deixis 110
7.2.6 Deictic center 111
7.3 Speech acts 112
7.3.1 The constative-performative dichotomy 112
7.3.2 The trichotomy of speech acts 113
7.3.3 Taxonomy of speech acts 113
7.3.4 Indirect speech acts 114
7.4 Pragmatic presupposition 115
7.5 Cooperation and implicature 116
7.5.1 Grice's cooperative principle and the four maxims 116
7.5.2 Conversational implicature 117
7.5.3 Conversational implicature and inference 117
7.6 Politeness and the politeness principle 118
7.6.1 Politeness as a universal phenomenon 118
7.6.2 The politeness principle 119
7.6.3 Scales of politeness 120
7.6.4 Social variables in politeness 120
7.6.5 Cultural difierences in politeness 121
7.7 Hedges 122
7.7.1 Classification of hedges 122
7.7.2 Pragmatic functions of hedges 123
7.8 The principle of relevance 124
7.9 Conversational structure 125
Chapter 8 Text Analysis：Exploring Principles of Text Construction 133
8.1 Discourse and text 133
8.2 Cohesion and coherence 134
8.2.1 Grammatical cohesion 136
8.2.2 Lexical cohesion 137
8.2.3 Conjunction 138
8.3 Cohesive chains 139
8.4 Discourse markers 140
8.5 Clause relations 140
8.6 Basic textual patterns 141
8.7 Genre and text structure 143
Chapter 9 Language and Society 147
9.1 Sociolinguistic study of language 147
9.2 Varieties of a language 147
9.3 Grades of formality 150
9.4 Languages in contact 151
9.5 Taboos and euphemisms 151
9.6 Communicative competence 152
Chapter 10 Language and Culture 157
10.1 What is culture? 157
10.2 Characteristics of culture 158
10.3 How is language related to culture? 161
10.4 Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis 162
10.5 Are linguistic meanings universal? 163
10.6 The ethnography of communication 166
10.7 Cultural aspect of language teaching and learning 167
Chapter 11 Second Language Acquisition 173
11.1 What is second language acquisition? 173
11.2 Factors affecting SLA 174
11.2.1 Social factors 174
11.2.2 Learner factors 175
11.3 Analyzing learners'language 176
11.3.1 Contrastive analysis 177
11.3.2 Error analysis 177
11.3.3 The study of interlanguage 179
11.4 Explaining second language acquisition 180
11.4.1 Mentalist explanation of SLA 180
11.4.2 Functionalist explanation of SLA 181
11.5 The role of output in SLA 182
Chapter 12 Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching 187
12.1 Foreign language teaching as a system 187
12.2 Contribution of linguistics：applications and implications 188
12.3 Linguistic underpinning of syllabus design 189
12.4 Method as integration of theory and practice 191
12.5 Linguistics and language testing 193
12.6 Linguistics in the professional development of language teachers 194
References 199
Key to Exercises 205
An English-Chinese Glossary 215
Appendix Ⅰ The Indo-European Language Family 225
Appendix Ⅱ Families/Groups of Languages 227
Appendix Ⅲ 语言学学习方法举要 229