1 Historical Development of Modern Steelmaking 1
1.1 Bottom-Blown Acid or Bessemer Process 1
1.2 Basic Bessemer or Thomas Process 3
1.3 Open Hearth Process 4
1.4 Oxygen Steelmaking 7
1.5 Electric Furnace Steelmaking 9
Exercises 11
2 Fundamentals of Iron and Steelmaking 12
2.1 Fundamentals of Steelmaking Reactions 12
2.1.1 Slag-Metal Equilibrium in Steelmaking 12
2.1.2 State of Reactions in Steelmaking 16
2.2 Fundamentals of Reactions in Electric Furnace Steelmaking 26
2.2.1 Slag Chemistry and the Carbon,Manganese.Sulfur and Phosphorus Reactions in the EAF 26
2.2.2 Control of Residuals in EAF Steelmaking 28
2.2.3 Nitrogen Control in EAF Steelmaking 29
2.3 Fundamentals of Stainless Steel Production 30
2.3.1 Decarburization of Stainless Steel 30
2.3.2 Nitrogen Control in the AOD 32
2.3.3 Reduction of Cr from Slag 33
2.4 Fundamentals of Ladle Metallurgical Reactions 34
2.4.1 Deoxidation Equilibrium and Kinetics 34
2.4.2 Ladle Desulfurization 41
2.4.3 Calcium Treatment of Steel 43
2.5 Fundamentals of Degassing 44
2.5.1 Fundamental Thermodynamics 44
2.5.2 Vacuum Degassing Kinetics 45
Exercises 47
3 Pre-treatment of Hot Metal 48
3.1 Introduction 48
3.2 Desiliconization and Dephosphorization Technologies 49
3.3 Desulfurization Technology 52
3.3.1 Introduction 52
3.3.2 Process Chemistry 53
3.3.3 Transport Systems 57
3.3.4 Process Venue 58
3.3.5 Slag Management 59
3.3.6 Lance Systems 59
3.3.7 Cycle Time 61
3.3.8 Hot Metal Sampling and Analysis 61
3.3.9 Reagent Consumption 62
3.3.10 Economics 62
3.3.11 Process Control 62
3.4 Hot Metal Thermal Adjustment 63
Exercises 64
4 Oxygen Steelmaking Processes 65
4.1 Introduction 65
4.1.1 Process Description and Events 65
4.1.2 Types of Oxygen Steelmaking Processes 67
4.1.3 Environmental Issues 68
4.2 Sequence of Operations—Top Blown 68
4.2.1 Plant Layout 68
4.2.2 Sequence of Operations 70
4.2.3 Shop Manning 76
4.3 Raw Materials 80
4.3.1 Introduction 80
4.3.2 Hot Metal 80
4.3.3 Scrap 82
4.3.4 High Metallic Alternative Feeds 83
4.3.5 Oxide Additions 84
4.3.6 Fluxes 85
4.3.7 Oxygen 87
4.4 Process Reactions and Energy Balance 88
4.4.1 Reactions in BOF Steelmaking 88
4.4.2 Slag Formation in BOF Steelmaking 91
4.4.3 Mass and Energy Balances 92
4.4.4 Tapping Practices and Ladle Additions 96
4.5 Process Variations 97
4.5.1 The Bottom-Blown Oxygen Steelmaking or OBM（Q-BOP）Process 97
4.5.2 Mixed-Blowing Processes 102
4.5.3 Oxygen Steelmaking Practice Variations 105
4.6 Process Control Strategies 108
4.6.1 Introduction 108
4.6.2 Static Models 109
4.6.3 Statistical and Neural Network Models 111
4.6.4 Dynamic Control Schemes 112
4.6.5 Lance Height Control 114
4.7 Environmental Issues 114
4.7.1 Basic Concerns 114
4.7.2 Sources of Air Pollution 115
4.7.3 Relative Amounts of Fumes Generated 117
4.7.4 Other Pollution Sources 118
4.7.5 Summary 119
Exercises 119
5 Electric Furnace Steelmaking 121
5.1 Electric Furnace Technology 121
5.1.1 Oxygen Use in the EAF 122
5.1.2 Oxy-Fuel Burner Application in the EAF 122
5.1.3 Application of Oxygen Lancing in the EAF 125
5.1.4 Foamy Slag Practice 128
5.1.5 CO Post-Combustion 130
5.1.6 EAF Bottom Stirring 140
5.1.7 Furnace Electrics 140
5.1.8 High Voltage AC Operations 142
5.1.9 DC EAF Operations 143
5.1.10 Use of Alternative Iron Sources in the EAF 146
5.1.11 Conclusions 147
5.2 Raw Materials 148
5.3 Fluxes and Additives 149
5.4 Furnace Operations 151
5.4.1 EAF Operating Cycle 151
5.4.2 Furnace Charging 152
5.4.3 Melting 153
5.4.4 Refining 154
5.4.5 Deslagging 156
5.4.6 Tapping 157
5.4.7 Furnace Turnaround 157
5.4.8 Furnace Heat Balance 158
5.5 New Scrap Melting Processes 159
5.5.1 Scrap Preheating 159
5.5.2 Preheating with Offgas 160
5.5.3 Natural Gas Scrap Preheating 161
5.5.4 K-ES 161
5.5.5 Danarc Process 164
5.5.6 Fuchs Shaft Furnace 165
5.5.7 Consteel Process 173
5.5.8 Twin Shell Electric Arc Furnace 176
5.5.9 Processes under Development 179
Exercises 187
References 189