Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1.1 Overview 1
1.2 U．S．Global Positioning System 2
1.2.1 GPS Services 4
1.2.2 GPS Modernization Program 5
1.3 Russian GLONASS System 7
1.4 Chinese BeiDou Satellite Navigation System 9
1.4.1 BeiDou Program History 10
1.4.2 BeiDou Services 12
1.5 European Galileo Satellite System 14
1.6 Augmentations 16
1.7 Organization of the Book 16
Review Questions 19
Chapter 2 Fundamentals of Satellite Navigation 21
2.1 Methods of Radionavigation 21
2.1.1 Trilateration 21
2.1.2 Hyperbolic Positioning 23
2.1.3 Doppler Positioning 24
2.2 Concept of Ranging Using TOA Measurements 26
2.2.1 Two-Dimensional Position Determination 26
2.2.2 Principle of Position Determination via Satellite-Generated Ranging Signals 29
2.3 Reference Coordinate Systems 31
2.3.1 Earth-Centered Inertial Coordinate System 31
2.3.2 Earth-Centered Earth-Fixed Coordinate System 32
2.3.3 World Geodetic System 33
2.3.4 Height Coordinates and the Geoid 36
2.3.5 GLONASS Coordinate Reference System 39
2.3.6 BeiDou Geodetic Reference System 40
2.3.7 Galileo Coordinate Reference System 41
2.4 Time References and GNSS Time 42
2.4.1 Time Scales：Astronomical and Atomic 43
2.4.2 GNSS System Time 48
2.5 Fundamentals of Satellite Orbits 54
2.6 Position，Velocity and Time Estimation 65
2.6.1 Determining Satellite-to-User Range 66
2.6.2 Calculation of User Position 69
2.6.3 User Velocity Estimation 73
2.6.4 Time Estimation 77
Review Questions 77
Chapter 3 Functional Segments of GNSS 79
3.1 Overview of the GNSS System 79
3.1.1 Space Segment Overview 80
3.1.2 Control Segment Overview 81
3.1.3 User Segment Overview 82
3.2 Space Segment 82
3.2.1 GPS Space Segment 82
3.2.2 GLONASS Space Segment 88
3.2.3 BeiDou Space Segment 93
3.2.4 Galileo Space Segment 96
3.3 Control Segment 99
3.3.1 GPS Control Segment 99
3.3.2 GLONASS Control Segment 118
3.3.3 BeiDou Control Segment 118
3.3.4 Galileo Control Segment 119
3.4 User Segment 121
Review Questions 122
Chapter 4 Stand-Alone GNSS Performance 123
4.1 Introduction 123
4.2 GNSS Error Sources 124
4.2.1 Satellite Clock Error 126
4.2.2 Ephemeris Error 127
4.2.3 Relativistic Effects 129
4.2.4 Atmospheric Effects 131
4.2.5 Receiver Noise and Resolution 146
4.2.6 Multipath and Shadowing Effects 146
4.2.7 Hardware Bias Errors 164
4.2.8 Pseudorange Error Budgets 166
4.3 Accuracy 168
4.3.1 Satellite Geometry and Dilution of Precision in GPS 168
4.3.2 Accuracy Metries 174
4.3.3 Weighted Least Squares（WIS） 179
4.3.4 Additional State Variables 180
4.3.5 Kalman Filtering 181
4.4 Availability 181
4.5 Integrity 184
4.5.1 Discussion of Criticality 184
4.5.2 Sources of Integrity Anomalies 185
4.5.3 Integrity Enhancement Techniques 186
4.6 Continuity 200
Review Questions 201
Chapter 5 GNSS Signals 203
5.1 Introduction 203
5.2 Modulations for Satellite Navigation 203
5.2.1 Modulation Types 203
5.2.2 Multiplexing Techniques 206
5.2.3 Signal Models and Characteristics 207
5.3 GPS Signals 213
5.3.1 Legacy GPS Signals 213
5.3.2 Modernized GPS Signals 236
5.3.3 GPS Signal Summary 242
5.4 GLONASS Signals 243
5.4.1 GLONASS Frequencies 243
5.4.2 Modulation 245
5.4.3 Code Properties 245
5.5 BeiDou Signals 247
5.5.1 BeiDou Frequencies 247
5.5.2 Open Service Signals 248
5.5.3 Ranging Code 249
5.6 Galileo Signals 252
5.6.1 Frequencies and Signals 252
5.6.2 Modulation Schemes 255
5.6.3 SAR Signal Plan 265
5.7 Navigation Message Format 266
5.7.1 GPS Navigation Message 266
5.7.2 GLONASS Navigation Message 269
5.7.3 BeiDou Navigation Message 271
5.7.4 Galileo Navigation Message 275
Review Questions 277
Chapter 6 GNSS Receivers 279
6.1 Introduction 279
6.2 GPS Receiver Architecture 281
6.2.1 Radio Frequency（RF）Front End 282
6.2.2 Frequency Down-Conversion and IF Amplification 284
6.2.3 Analog-to-Digital Conversion and Automatic Gain Control 286
6.2.4 Baseband Signal Processing 287
6.3 GPS Signal Acquisition 287
6.3.1 Tong Search Detector 293
6.3.2 M of N Search Detector 296
6.3.3 Direct Acquisition of GPS Military Signals 298
6.4 GPS Signal Tracking 301
6.4.1 Predetection Integration 303
6.4.2 Baseband Signal Processing 304
6.4.3 Digital Frequency Synthesis 307
6.4.4 Carrier Aiding of Code Loop 309
6.4.5 External Aiding 310
6.5 Carrier Tracking Loops 310
6.5.1 Phase Lock Loops 311
6.5.2 Costas Loops 314
6.5.3 Frequency Lock Loops 317
6.6 Code Tracking Loops 320
6.7 Formation of Pseudorange，Delta Pseudorange，and Integrated Doppler 327
6.7.1 Pseudorange 328
6.7.2 Delta Pseudorange 346
6.7.3 Integrated Doppler 348
6.8 Data Demodulation 349
Review Questions 350
Chapter 7 Differential GNSS 352
7.1 Introduction 352
7.2 Spatial and Time Correlation Characteristics of GPS Errors 354
7.2.1 Satellite Clock Errors 355
7.2.2 Ephemeris Errors 355
7.2.3 Ionospheric Errors 357
7.2.4 Tropospheric Errors 360
7.2.5 Receiver Noise and Multipath 364
7.3 Code-Based Techniques 364
7.3.1 Local-Area DGNSS 365
7.3.2 Regional-Area DGNSS 368
7.3.3 Wide-Area DGNSS 369
7.4 Carrier-Based Techniques 370
7.4.1 Precise Baseline Determination in Real Time 372
7.4.2 Static Application 394
7.4.3 Airborne Application 395
7.4.4 Attitude Determination 399
7.5 RTCM Messages 401
Review Questions 402
Chapter 8 GNSS Applications 403
8.1 Introduction 403
8.2 Marine and Land Applications of GNSS 403
8.2.1 Marine Navigation 405
8.2.2 Land Navigation 408
8.3 Aviation Applications 409
8.3.1 Classes of Aviation Augmentation Systems 410
8.3.2 Benefits of GPS and Augmentations to Aviation Users 412
8.3.3 Future of GNSS Navigation in Aviation 415
8.3.4 Functionality of Aviation Augmentation Systems 418
8.4 Space Applications 424
8.4.1 Operational Considerations 424
8.4.2 Applications 430
8.5 GNSS in Surveying，Mapping，and Geographical Information Systems 437
8.5.1 Surveying 437
8.5.2 Mapping 438
8.5.3 Geographical Information System 438
8.6 GNSS Time Transfer 440
8.7 Government and Military Applications 440
8.7.1 Military User Equipments 441
8.7.2 Autonomous Receivers—Smart Weapons 442
8.7.3 Other Government Applications 442
Review Questions 443
References 445