CONTENTS 1
CHAPTER Ⅰ THE SCIENCE OF EXPRESSION 1
1.10．Something to Say and Way of Saying It 1
1.11．All Grammatical Forms and Constructions are Ways of Expressing Notions 2
1.20．Grammar as the Science of Expression 3
1.30．National Differences in Notions and Their Expressions 5
1.31．National Differences in Notions 5
1.40．Formal and Notional Grouping of Grammatical Facts 6
1.32．English Grammar Should Teach English Ways of Think－ing and Expression 6
1.41．Outline of the Course 8
1.42．Living Grammar 10
CHAPTER Ⅱ PARTS OF SPEECH AND CHANGE OF FUNCTION 11
2.10．The Eight Parts of Speech or Word-Classes 11
2.11．Definitions 12
2.12．Grammatical Function 14
2.13．Chinese and English Compared 15
2.14．Sense of Function 16
2.15．Sense of Thing 17
2.16．Sense of Action and Quality 18
2.17．Sense of Aspect and Manner 20
2.18．Sense of Prepositional Force 22
2.20．Change of Function 23
2.21．Nouns Used as Adjectives 24
2.22．Nouns Changed into Adjectives 26
2.23．Nouns Used as Verbs 27
2.30．Verbs Used as Nouns 27
2.31．Verbs Changed into Nouns 29
2.32．Pairs of Nouns and Verbs 30
2.33．Verbs Used as Adjectives：Participles 32
2.34．Spelling of Participles 34
2.35 Verbs Changed into Adjectives 35
2.40．Adjectives Changed into Nouns 36
2.41．The Poor，the Dead,etc． 37
2.42．Adjectives Changed into Adverbs：The Ending－ly 38
2.43．Knowingly，Decidedly，etc 40
2.50．Prepositions Used as Adjectives 40
2.51．Adverbs and Prepositions Used as Nouns 42
2.52．Adverbs，Prepositions and Conjunctions 42
2.60．Some Interesting Compound-Words 43
CHAPTER Ⅲ SENTENCE MOODS 46
3.10．What is a Sentence？ 46
3.11．Importance of Finite Verb 48
3.20．Sentence，Phrase and Clause：Subject，Predicate and Principal Verb 49
3.21．Direct and Indirect Objects 49
3.22．Sentence Structure：Modifiers and Conjunctions 50
3.23．Phrase and Clause 51
3.30．Sentence Moods 52
3.31．Chinese and English Compared：Chinese Modal Particles 53
3.40．Affirmation：I Do，I Am 54
3.41．Can，Will，Have，Must，etc 55
3.42．Affirmative Replies 56
3.43．Qualified Assertion 56
3.44．Emphatic Assertion 57
3.45．English Reticence and Double Negatives 59
3.46．Affirmation by a Retort Question 60
3.50．Negation 61
3.51．Aren't，Isn't，Mustn't，etc． 62
3.52．No，Not a，Not Any，Nothing，etc． 64
3.54．No in Negative Answers 65
3.53．Few，a Few，Little，a Little 65
3.55．Emphatic Negation 66
3.56．“I Ain't Got Nothillg” 67
3.57．Conditional Negation 68
3.60．Interrogation 69
3.61．Will You？Wont't You？ 70
3.62．The Tag-Question 71
3.63．Tonal Interrogation and the Questioning Tone 72
3.64．The Indirect Question and Noun Clauses 73
3.71．Command，Request，Suggestion，etc． 75
3.70．The Potential Moods 75
3.72．Shall and Will 77
3.73．Hope and Wish 78
3.74．Permission，Prohibition，Obligation，etc． 80
3.75．Conjecture and Possibility 81
3.76．Pure Supposition：Would,Should,Could,Might 83
3.77．The Subjunctive Clause 85
3.80．Emotional Utterances 86
3.81．Swear-Words 88
4.10．Classes of Things 90
CHAPTER Ⅳ PERSONS，THINGS AND THEIR GENDER 90
4.20．Process and Result 91
4.21．Process-Words Denoting Results 92
4.30．Abstract and Contrete Nouns 93
4.31．Abstract-Words with Concrete Meaning 95
4.32．A Piece of Folly，a Fit of Anger，etc． 96
4.40．Common and Proper Nouns 97
4.41．Proper Nouns and Capital Letters 98
4.51．Mass-Words 99
4.50．Collectives and Mass-Words：Collectives or Group-Names 99
4.60．Things，Persons and Personification：Things and Persons 100
4.61．Who，Which and That 101
4.62．Whose and Of Which 102
4.63．Personification 103
4.70．Sex and Gender 105
4.71．Masculine，Feminine，Common and Neuter Genders 106
4.72．Animals and Persons of Different Sex 107
CHAPTER Ⅴ NUMBER AND QUANTITY 109
5.10．The Notions of Number and Quantity 109
5.11．Mass-Words：Grain of Sand,Bushel of Rice,etc． 110
5.12．Abstract Nouns：Piece of Luck 112
5.20．Singular and Plural：The Plural Endings -s and -es 113
5.21．Boys，Ladies，Pianos，Potatoes 115
5.22．Irregular Pluals：Fish，Dozen，Alumni 116
5.23．Collectives：Government Have and Government Has 118
5.24．Psychological Intent：Three Weeks Is Heaps of Time 119
5.25．The Generic Singular 120
5.26．Natural Plurals 121
5.27．Differentiated Plurals 123
5.28．Some Special Cases：Sons－in-law，the Miss Rogers，etc． 124
5.30．Numerals：Numerals，Fractions and Multiples 126
5.31．Indefinite Number 129
5.40．Conflict of Number 131
5.41．Number in Verbs 133
CHAPTER Ⅵ WEIGHT，VALUE，SIZE，SHAPE AND POSITION 139
6.10．National Differences in These Categories 139
6.20．Expressions of Weight 139
6.30．Expressions of Value 140
6.40．Expressions of Size and Distance 143
6.50．Expressions of Shape：English Shape－Blindness 144
6.60．Expressions of Position 146
6.61．Peculiar Use of Prepositions 148
CHAPTER Ⅶ REPRESENTATION 150
7.10．Representation 150
7.20．Presonal Pronouns：Case and Person 151
7.21．Mine，Thine，etc 153
7.22．Influence of Modesty，Respect，Familiarity，etc 154
7.23．Reflexive and Reciprocal Pronouns 156
7.24．General Person：One,People，etc 158
7.30．Conflict of Person and Case：Conflict of Person 160
7.31．Conflict of Case：Who，Whom，Whoever,Whomever 162
7.40．Thing－Pronouns 165
7.41．Some，Any，None 166
7.42．What 167
7.43．One，Thing，Affair，Something，etc 167
7.44．That 169
7.45．It 170
7.50．Metaphors：Metaphors and Figurative Expressions 173
7.60．Indirect Statements：Direct and Indirect Statements 177
7.61．Tense of Dependent Clauses 179
7.70．Representation by Omission 181
CHAPTER Ⅷ DETERMINATION 186
8.10．Representation，Determination and Modification 186
8.11．Classes of Pronouns 187
8.20．Distinction：This，That，Same，Other 188
8.30．Possessive Pronouns and Nouns 190
8.40．Apposition：Apposition and Example 192
8.50．Sequence：the Ordinals 194
8.60．Alternation and Distribution：Either，Each，etc 195
8.70．Definite and Indefinite：A，An and The 197
8.71．Generalization：A Cat，The Cat，Cats 199
8.72．Special Uses of A and The 201
8.73．Omission of A and The 203
8.80．Indetermination：Whatever，Whoever，etc 207
CHAPTER Ⅸ MODIFICATION 210
9.10．Modification：Its Importance 210
9.11．Word-Classes and Word-Ranks 212
9.20．Relationship between Modified and Modifier 214
9.21．The Use and Omission of Hyphens 217
9.22．Relationship between Modifiers 220
9.23．Co-ordinate Modifiers 220
9.24．Subordinate Modifiers 223
9.25．Shifted Ranks 226
9.26．Transformed Phrases as Modifiers 230
9.27．Nouns and Verbs as Modifiers 232
9.30．Phrase and Clause Modifiers 235
9.31．The Infinitve Phrase as Modifier 235
9.32．The Split Infinitive，etc． 239
9.33．Need to，Dare to 241
9.40．The Participial Phrase as Modifier 243
9.41．Misconnected Participles 246
9.42．The Absolute Participial Phrase 247
9.50．The Prepositional Phrase 249
9.51．Prepositions for Brevity 250
9.52．Prepositions at End 251
9.53．But，Than 252
9.54．Some Special Uses of English Prepositons 253
9.60．The Relative Clause 255
9.61．That as a Defining Relative Pronoun 256
9.62．Which as a Commentative Relative Pronoun 257
9.63．Which Modifying Statements 259
9.64．In Which，from Whom，etc 259
9.65．Which...It，Which...Them，etc 261
9.66．That...to，That...for，etc 261
9.67．That Used for in Which，for Which，etc 262
9.68．That Dropped 262
9.691．As as a Relative Pronoun 263
9.70．Relative Adverbs When，Where and Why 264
9.692．But as a Relative Pronoun 264
9.71．When Called,When Resting 266
9.80．Phrase and Clause Modifiers Summarized 267
9.81．Post－Nominal Position of Modifiers 268
9.82．Economy in Phrase and Clause Modifiers 269
9.83．The Nominal Phrase 270
9.84．Joining of Phrases 270
9.90．The Predicate Complements 271
9.91．“I Made Him Go” 273
13.60．Auxiliaries：Might，Could,Would,Should and Ought 274
10.10．Degrees of Comparison：Their Relative Nature 275
CHAPTER Ⅹ COMPARISON AND DEGREE 275
10.11．The“Three Degrees of Comparison” 276
10.12．More Better，Next Best，etc 278
10.13．Superiority，Equality and Inferiority 279
10.14．Implied Comparison 280
10.15．Words That Cannot Be Compared 281
10.16．Weakened Superlatives 282
10.20．Comparison with a Standard 284
10.30．Degree of Difference 288
10.31．Indeterminate Degrees 288
10.32．Limitation 294
10.33．Cumulative Degrees 296
10.40．Choice and Comparison 297
10.50．Comparison and Case 299
CHAPTER Ⅺ ASPECTS OF ACTION 302
11.01．The Study of the Verb 302
11.02．What is an Aspect？ 303
11.03．The English Verbal Aspects 305
11.10．Action and Condition 305
11.11．Being and Doing 308
11.20．Transitive and Intransitive Verbs 309
11.21．Intransitive Verbs and Prepositions 311
11.22．Intransitive Verbs Used Transitively 315
11.30．Active and Passive：The Term“Voice” 317
11.31．Formation of the Passive 317
11.32．Use of the Passive 319
11.33．Active and Passive Nouns 320
11.34．Active and Passive Adjectives 321
11.35．False Active 322
11.40．Complete and Incomplete Action 323
11.41．Present Perfect and Adverbs of Time 324
11.42．Use of the Perfect 325
11.43．Incompletion：Use of the Progressive 330
11.44．Participles and the Conclusive Aspect 331
11.50．Beginning，Continuation and End 332
11.60．Durative and Punctual：Point of Time and Period of Time 334
11.61．Punctual and Durative Verbs 335
11.62．Duration in Prepositions 336
11.70．Habitual Action 337
11.80．Tentative Action 339
11.90．Miscellaneous Minor Aspects：Causative，Reiterative，Reflexive and Reciprocal 340
CHAPTER Ⅻ SUBJECT AND OBJECT（TRANSITIVE ACTION） 342
12.10．Subject and Doer 342
12.11．Object and Party Affected 343
12.12．Grammatical Subjects and Objects 344
12.20．Kinds of Subject 345
12.21．It as Subject 345
12.22．There Is 347
12.30．Transitive Action and Objects：Transitive Action 348
12.31．Direct and Indirect Objects 349
12.40．Passive Subjects：Passive Verbs with Objects 350
12.41．Passive Intransitive Verbs 351
12.50．Impersonal Subjects 352
13.10．The Time Schene：Present，Past and Future 355
CHAPTER ⅩⅢ TIME OF ACTION 355
13.20．Present：What is Present？ 356
13.21．Habitual Action and Eternal Truths 357
13.30．Future：Expression of Future 358
13.31．Shall and Will 358
13.32．Chinese“Chiang”and“Yao” 360
13.33．May and Is to 361
13.34．Present Used for Future 362
13.41．Use of the Past 363
13.40．Past：Past Actions are Facts 363
13.42．Past Visualized：“Dramatic Present” 365
13.43．Tense in Dependent Clauses 366
13.50．Irregular Verbs 366
13.61．Expression of the Past with Auxiliaries 377
13.62．Declinable Substitutes for the Auxiliaries 378
13.70．Conjunctions Expressing Time 380
13.80．Adverbs of Time 382
13.90．Time in Nouns 383
14.11．Fact and Fancy 385
CHAPTER ⅩⅣ FACT AND FANCY 385
14.10．The Verbal Moods：Close Relation to Sentence Moods 385
14.12．Subjective and Objective Moods 386
14.20．The Subjunctive Mood：Shifting of Tense 386
14.21．General Supposition：If He Should Have，If He Have 388
14.22．Different Degrees of Supposition 390
14.23．If I Was，If I Were 392
14.30．The Potential Moods 392
15.10．Conjunctions and Logical Relationships 396
15.20．Simple，Compound and Complex Sentences 396
CHAPTER ⅩⅤ RELATIONSHIPS 396
15.30．Co－ordinate and Subordinate Clauses 399
15.40．Logical Relationships 401
15.41．Combination 401
15.42．Opposition 402
15.43．Selection and Substitution 403
15.44．Exclusion and Inclusion 404
15.45．Condition and Concession 405
15.46．Cause and Effect 406
15.47．Motive and Purpose 407
15.48．Comparison and Conformity 408
15.49．Time and Logical Relationships 410
15.50．Interrogative Adverbs and Pronouns 412
15.60．Punctuation：Logical and Phonetic Basis 412
15.61．The Comma 413
15.62．The Semi-Colon 415
15.63．The Colon 416
15.65．The Exclamation and Question Marks 417
15.66．Inverted Commas 417
15.64．The FullStop 417
15.67．The Dash and the Dotted Line 418
15.68．Parentheses and Brackets 420
15.70．Loose and Periodic Sentences：Loose and Periodic Sen-tence Structure 421
CHAPTER ⅩⅥ ECONOMY OF EXPRESSION 423
16.10．Ease and Economy 423
16.20．Shifting of Function 423
16.21．Change of Clauses into Phrases 424
16.30．Ellipsis：Dropping of Auxiliary Words 426
16.31．Dropping of Principal Words 426
16.22．Change of Phrase Modfifiers into Word-Modifiers 426
16.32．Ellipsis in Dependent Clauses 427
16.33．And that 428
16.40．Abbreviations and Contractions：Contractions 428
16.41．Abbreviations 429
16.42．Monosyllabism 430
16.50．Mottoes 432
16.60．Economy and Emotional Language 432
16.70．Economy and Business 432
SYNOPSIS OF FORMAL GRAMMAR 434
INDEX OF SUBJECTS AND TERMS 444