Introduction 1
1．The Pre-Socratic PhilosophersSixth and Fifth Centuries B.C.E. 11
Thales 14
Anaximander 17
Anaximenes 23
Pythagoras 25
Xenophanes 28
Heraclitus 31
Parmenides 35
Zeno 37
Empedocles 40
Anaxagoras 42
Leucippus and Democritus 45
2．The Athenian PeriodFifth and Fourth Centuries B.C.E. 52
The Sophists 52
Protagoras 53
Gorgias 54
Thrasymachus 55
Callicles and Critias 56
Socrates 58
Plato 63
Aristotle 76
3．The Hellenistic and Roman PeriodsFourth Century B.C.E.through Fourth Century C.E. 96
Epicureanism 96
Stoicism 100
Neoplatonism 105
4．Medieval and Renaissance PhilosophyFifth through Fifteenth Centuries 109
Saint Augustine 113
The Encyclopediasts 118
John Scotus Eriugena 120
Saint Anselm 123
Muslim and Jewish Philosophies 126
Averroёs 128
Maimonides 129
The Problem of Faith and Reason 131
The Problem of the Universals 132
Saint Thomas Aquinas 135
William of Ockham 147
Renaissance Philosophers 151
5．Continental Rationalism and British EmpiricismThe Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries 160
Descartes 160
Hobbes 180
Spinoza 185
Leibniz 190
Locke 196
Berkeley 204
Hume 209
Kant 218
6．Post-Kantian British and Continental PhilosophyThe Nineteenth Century 235
Hegel 235
Schopenhauer 245
Kierkegaard 254
Marx 266
Nietzsche 279
Utilitarianism 288
Bentham 288
Mill 293
Frege 296
7．Pragmatism,the Analytic Tradition,and the Phenomenological Tradition and Its AftermathThe Twentieth Century 305
Pragmatism 305
James 306
Dewey 313
The Analytic Tradition 318
Moore 319
Russell 324
Logical Positivism 331
Wittgenstein 337
Quine 349
The Phenomenological Tradition and Its Aftermath 359
Husserl 359
Heidegger 363
Sartre 371
Structuralism and Poststructuralism 384
Saussure 384
Lévi-Strauss 387
Lacan 392
Derrida 398
Farewell to the Twentieth Century 402
Nussbaum 402
Glossary of Philosophical Terms 416
Selected Bibliography 433
Index 443