Introduction 15
4 Less Common Nonferrous Metals 213
4.1 Alkali Metals 213
4.1.1 Lithium 217
4.1.1.1 Description and General Properties 217
4.1.1.2 History 219
4.1.1.3 Natural Occurrence,Minerals,and Ores 220
4.1.1.4 Processing and Industrial Preparation 223
4.1.1.5 Industrial Applications and Uses 228
4.1.1.6 Lithium Mineral and Chemical Prices 230
4.1.1.7 Lithium Mineral,Carbonate,and Metal Producers 230
4.1.1.8 Further Reading 231
4.1.2 Sodium 232
4.1.2.1 Description and General Properties 232
4.1.2.2 History 233
4.1.2.3 Natural Occurrence,Minerals,and Ores 233
4.1.2.4 Processing and Industrial Preparation 234
4.1.2.5 Industrial Applications and Uses 235
4.1.2.6 Transport,Storage,and Safety 236
4.1.2.7 Major Producers of Sodium Metal 236
4.1.2.8 Further Reading 236
4.1.3 Potassium 237
4.1.3.1 Description and General Properties 237
4.1.3.2 History 238
4.1.3.3 Natural Occurrence,Minerals,and Ores 238
4.1.3.4 Processing and Industrial Preparation 238
4.1.3.5 Industrial Applications and Uses 239
4.1.3.6 Further Reading 239
4.1.4 Rubidium 239
4.1.4.1 Description and General Properties 239
4.1.4.2 History 240
4.1.4.3 Natural Occurrence,Minerals,and Ores 240
4.1.4.4 Processing and Industrial Preparation 240
4.1.4.5 Industrial Applications and Uses 240
4.1.4.6 Major Rubidium Producers 241
4.1.4.7 Further Reading 241
4.1.5 Cesium 241
4.1.5.1 Description and General Properties 241
4.1.5.2 History 241
4.1.5.3 Natural Occurrence,Minerals,and Ores 242
4.1.5.4 Processing and Industrial Preparation 242
4.1.5.5 Industrial Applications and Uses 242
4.1.5.6 Cesium Metal Producers 243
4.1.5.7 Further Reading 243
4.1.6 Francium 243
4.2 Alkaline-Earth Metals 243
4.2.1 Beryllium 244
4.2.1.1 Description and General Properties 244
4.2.1.2 History 244
4.2.1.3 Natural Occurrence,Minerals,and Ores 248
4.2.1.4 Mining and Mineral Dressing 248
4.2.1.5 Processing and Industrial Preparation 248
4.2.1.6 Industrial Applications and Uses 249
4.2.1.7 Major Beryllium Metal Producers 250
4.2.1.8 Further Reading 250
4.2.2 Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys 250
4.2.2.1 Description and General Properties 250
4.2.2.2 History 251
4.2.2.3 Natural Occurrence,Minerals,and Ores 251
4.2.2.4 Processing and Industrial Preparation 252
4.2.2.5 Properties of Magnesium Alloys 255
4.2.2.6 Industrial Applications and Uses 255
4.2.2.7 Recycling of Magnesium Scrap and Drosses 255
4.2.2.8 Major Magnesium Metal Producers 259
4.2.2.9 Further Reading 260
4.2.3 Calcium 260
4.2.3.1 Description and General Properties 260
4.2.3.2 History 260
4.2.3.3 Natural Occurrence,Minerals,and Ores 260
4.2.3.4 Processing and Industrial Preparation 261
4.2.3.5 Industrial Applications and Uses 261
4.2.3.6 Calcium Metal Producers 262
4.2.3.7 Further Reading 262
4.2.4 Strontium 262
4.2.4.1 Description and General Properties 262
4.2.4.2 History 263
4.2.4.2 Natural Occurrence,Minerals,and Ores 263
4.2.4.3 Processing and Industrial Preparation 263
4.2.4.4 Industrial Applications and Uses 263
4.2.5 Barium 263
4.2.5.1 Description and General Properties 263
4.2.5.2 History 264
4.2.5.2 Natural Occurrence,Minerals,and Ores 264
4.2.5.3 Processing and Industrial Preparation 264
4.2.5.4 Industrial Applications and Uses 264
4.2.6 Radium 264
4.2.6.1 Description and General Properties 264
4.2.6.2 History 265
4.2.6.3 Natural Occurrence 265
4.2.6.4 Processing and Industrial Preparation 265
4.2.6.5 Industrial Applications and Uses 265
4.3 Refractory Metals 266
4.3.1 General Overview 266
4.3.1.1 Common Properties 266
4.3.1.2 Corrosion Resistance 271
4.3.1.3 Cleaning,Descaling,Pickling,and Etching 271
4.3.1.4 Machining of Pure Reactive and Refractory Metals 273
4.3.1.5 Pyrophoricity of Refractory Metals 273
4.3.2 Titanium and Titanium Alloys 274
4.3.2.1 Description and General Properties 274
4.3.2.2 History 276
4.3.2.3 Natural Occurrence,Minerals,and Ores 276
4.3.2.4 Mining and Mineral Dressing 280
4.3.2.5 Titanium Slag and Slagging 281
4.3.2.6 Synthetic Rutiles 283
4.3.2.7 Titanium Dioxide(Titania) 286
4.3.2.8 Titanium Sponge 288
4.3.2.9 Ferrotitanium 296
4.3.2.10 Titanium Metal Ingot 297
4.3.2.11 Titanium Metal Powder 298
4.3.2.12 Commercially Pure Titanium 301
4.3.2.13 Titanium Alloys 302
4.3.2.14 Corrosion Resistance 313
4.3.2.15 Titanium Metalworking 319
4.3.2.16 Titanium Machining 320
4.3.2.17 Titanium Joining 320
4.3.2.18 Titanium Etching,Descaling,and Pickling 320
4.3.2.19 Titanium Anodizing 321
4.3.2.20 Industrial Applications and Uses 322
4.3.2.21 Major Producers of Titanium Metal Sponge and Ingot 324
4.3.2.22 World and International Titanium Conferences 325
4.3.2.23 Further Reading 325
4.3.3 Zirconium and Zirconium Alloys 326
4.3.3.1 Description and General Properties 326
4.3.3.2 History 327
4.3.3.3 Natural Occurrence,Minerals,and Ores 328
4.3.3.4 Mining and Mineral Dressing 328
4.3.3.5 Processing and Industrial Preparation 329
4.3.3.6 Zirconium Alloys 331
4.3.3.7 Corrosion Resistance 333
4.3.3.8 Zirconium Machining 333
4.3.3.9 Industrial Uses and Applications 334
4.3.3.10 Zirconium Metal Producers 334
4.3.3.11 Further Reading 334
4.3.4 Hafnium and Hafnium Alloys 336
4.3.4.1 Description and General Properties 336
4.3.4.2 History 336
4.3.4.3 Natural Occurrence,Minerals,and Ores 337
4.3.4.4 Processing and Industrial Preparation 337
4.3.4.5 Industrial Applications and Uses 337
4.3.4.6 Major Hafnium Metal Producers 337
4.3.4.7 Further Reading 338
4.3.5 Vanadium and Vanadium Alloys 338
4.3.5.1 Description and General Properties 338
4.3.5.2 History 339
4.3.5.3 Natural Occurrence,Minerals,and Ores 339
4.3.5.4 Processing and Industrial Preparation 340
4.3.5.5 Industrial Applications and Uses 342
4.3.5.6 Major Vanadium Producers 342
4.3.5.7 Further Reading 342
4.3.6 Niobium and Niobium Alloys 343
4.3.6.1 Description and General Properties 343
4.3.6.2 History 344
4.3.6.3 Natural Occurrence,Minerals,and Ores 345
4.3.6.4 Processing and Industrial Preparation 346
4.3.6.5 Properties of Niobium Alloys 347
4.3.6.6 Niobium Metalworking 347
4.3.6.7 Niobium Machining 347
4.3.6.8 Niobium Joining and Welding 349
4.3.6.9 Niobium Cleaning,Pickling,and Etching 349
4.3.6.10 Industrial Applications and Uses 350
4.3.6.11 Major Producers of Niobium Metal 350
4.3.6.12 Further Reading 350
4.3.7 Tantalum and Tantalum Alloys 353
4.3.7.1 Description and General Properties 353
4.3.7.2 History 354
4.3.7.3 Natural Occurrence,Minerals,and Ores 355
4.3.7.4 Processing and Industrial Preparation 356
4.3.7.5 Properties of Tantalum Alloys 357
4.3.7.6 Tantalum Metalworking 357
4.3.7.7 Tantalum Machining 359
4.3.7.8 Tantalum Joining 359
4.3.7.9 Tantalum Cleaning and Degreasing 360
4.3.7.10 Tantalum Cladding and Coating Techniques 361
4.3.7.11 Industrial Applications and Uses 365
4.3.7.12 Major Tantalum Metal Producers 366
4.3.7.13 Further Reading 367
4.3.8 Chromium and Chromium Alloys 367
4.3.8.1 Description and General Properties 367
4.3.8.2 History 368
4.3.8.3 Natural Occurrence,Minerals,and Ores 368
4.3.8.4 Processing and Industrial Preparation 369
4.3.8.5 Industrial Applications and Uses 372
4.3.8.6 Major Chromite and Ferrochrome Producers 372
4.3.8.7 Further Reading 372
4.3.9 Molybdenum and Molybdenum Alloys 373
4.3.9.1 Description and General Properties 373
4.3.9.2 History 373
4.3.9.3 Natural Occurrence,Minerals,and Ores 374
4.3.9.4 Processing and Industrial Preparation 374
4.3.9.5 Properties of Molybdenum Alloys 375
4.3.9.6 Molybdenum Metalworking 377
4.3.9.7 Molybdenum Joining 377
4.3.9.8 Molybdenum Machining 378
4.3.9.9 Molybdenum Cleaning,Etching,and Pickling 380
4.3.9.10 Industrial Applications and Uses 380
4.3.9.11 World Molybdenum Metal Producers 384
4.3.9.12 Further Reading 384
4.3.10 Tungsten and Tungsten Alloys 385
4.3.10.1 Description and General Properties 385
4.3.10.2 History 386
4.3.10.3 Natural Occurrence,Minerals,and Ores 386
4.3.10.4 Processing and Industrial Preparation 387
4.3.10.5 Properties of Tungsten Alloys 387
4.3.10.6 Industrial Applications and Uses 387
4.3.10.7 Major Tungsten Metal and Hardmetal Producers 389
4.3.10.8 Further Reading 391
4.3.11 Rhenium and Rhenium Alloys 391
4.3.11.1 Description and General Properties 391
4.3.11.2 History 392
4.3.11.3 Natural Occurrence,Minerals,and Ores 392
4.3.11.4 Processing and Industrial Preparation 393
4.3.11.5 Industrial Applications and Uses 393
4.4 Noble and Precious Metals 393
4.4.1 Silver and Silver Alloys 396
4.4.1.1 Description and General Properties 396
4.4.1.2 History 397
4.4.1.3 Natural Occurrence,Minerals,and Ores 397
4.4.1.4 Processing and Industrial Preparation 397
4.4.1.5 Silver Alloys 398
4.4.1.6 Industrial Applications and Uses 398
4.4.1.7 Further Reading 400
4.4.2 Gold and Gold Alloys 400
4.4.2.1 Description and General Properties 400
4.4.2.2 History 401
4.4.2.3 Natural Occurrence,Minerals,and Ores 402
4.4.2.4 Mineral Dressing,and Mining 402
4.4.2.5 Processing and Industrial Preparation 403
4.4.2.6 Gold Alloys 404
4.4.2.7 Industrial Applications and Uses 406
4.4.2.8 Major Gold Producers and Suppliers 406
4.5 Platinum-Group Metals 407
4.5.1 General Overview 407
4.5.2 Natural Occurrence,Chief Minerals,and Ores 408
4.5.3 Common Physical and Chemical Properties 409
4.5.4 The Six Platinum Group Metals 409
4.5.4.1 Ruthenium 409
4.5.4.2 Rhodium 413
4.5.4.3 Palladium 413
4.5.4.4 Osmium 414
4.5.4.5 Iridium 414
4.5.4.6 Platinum 415
4.5.5 PGM Alloys 416
4.5.6 PGMs Corrosion Resistance 417
4.5.6.1 Industrial Applications and Uses 420
4.5.6.2 Major Producers and Suppliers of PGMs 421
4.5.7 Further Reading 422
4.6 Rare-Earth Metals 422
4.6.1 Description and General Properties 422
4.6.2 History 423
4.6.3 Natural Occurrence,Minerals,and Ores 425
4.6.4 Processing and Industrial Preparation 427
4.6.5 Industrial Applications and Uses 429
4.6.6 Major Producers and Suppliers of Rare Earths 431
4.6.7 Further Reading 432
4.6.8 Scandium(Sc) 433
4.6.8.1 Description and General Properties 433
4.6.8.2 History 433
4.6.8.3 Natural Occurrence,Minerals,and Ores 433
4.6.8.4 Processing and Industrial Preparation 434
4.6.8.5 Industrial Applications and Uses 434
4.6.8.6 Scandium Metal,Alloys,and Chemicals 435
4.7 Uranides 436
4.7.1 Uranium 438
4.7.1.1 Description and General Properties 438
4.7.1.2 History 439
4.7.1.3 Natural Occurrence,Minerals,and Ores 440
4.7.1.4 Mineral Dressing and Mining 441
4.7.1.5 Processing and Industrial Preparation 442
4.7.1.6 Industrial Applications and Uses 446
4.7.1.7 Further Reading 447
4.7.2 Thorium 447
4.7.2.1 Description and General Properties 447
4.7.2.2 History 447
4.7.2.3 Natural Occurrence,Minerals,and Ores 448
4.7.2.4 Processing and Industrial Preparation 449
4.7.2.5 Industrial Applications and Uses 451
4.7.2.6 Further Reading 452
4.7.3 Plutonium 452
4.7.3.1 Description and General Properties 452
4.7.3.2 History 453
4.7.3.3 Natural Occurrence,Minerals,and Ores 454
4.7.3.4 Processing and Industrial Preparation 454