Perspectives on language and cognition：From empiricism to rationalism and back again 1
Dominiek Sandra 1
1．Language and cognition：Defining aspects of human nature 1
2．Language without mind：Structuralism and behaviorism 3
3．Language and mind：The mentalist era 5
4．Language and cognition：A twin pair 7
5．The contents of this volume 12
Artificial intelligence 16
Steven Gillis,Walter Daelemans＆Koenraad DeSmedt 16
1．Introduction 16
2．A brief historical note 17
3．The physical symbol system hypothesis 20
4．Paradigms for the representation of knowledge 22
4.1 State-space search 22
4.2 Logic-based formalisms 24
4.3 Semantic network formalisms and frames 24
4.4 Rule-based formalisms 26
5．Linguistic symbol manipulation in semantics and pragmatics 27
5.1 Semantics 28
5.2 Knowledge and intentions 29
5.3 Utterances in context 30
5.4 Modeling the user 31
5.4.1 User modeling and dialog systems 31
5.4.2 Dimensions of user models 31
5.4.3 Construction of a user model 32
5.4.4 Instantiating the user model：Collecting evidence in dialog 33
5.5 Generating discourse 34
6．Epilogue 36
Categorization 41
Eleanor Rosch 41
1．The classical view of categorization 41
2．Challenges and alternatives to the classical view 42
2.1 Graded structure and prototypes 42
2.2 Non-arbitrariness and coherence of categories 45
3．Modeling problems and critiques of graded structure 46
3.1 Mathematical models 46
3.2 Critiques of graded structure 47
4．Categories as theories 48
5．Conclusion 51
Cerebral division of labour in verbal communication 53
Michel Paradis 53
1．Introduction 53
2．Dyshyponoia 54
3．Right-hemisphere involvement 55
4．Implicit pragmatic competence and metapragmatic knowledge 59
5．Inference 61
6．The legitimacy of sentence grammars 63
7．Semantics and pragmatics in the interpretation of an utterance 66
8．Language vs.verbal communication：What's in a name? 70
9．Conclusion 72
Cognitive grammar 78
Ronald W.Langacker 78
1．Introduction 78
2．Organization 79
3．Conceptualist semantics 81
4．Grammar as symbolization 82
Cognitive science 86
Seana Coulson＆Teenie Matlock 86
1．Definition 86
2．History of contributing fields 87
2.1 Philosophy 87
2.2 Artificial intelligence 88
2.3 Psychology 88
2.4 Linguistics 90
2.5 Neuroscience 90
2.6 Current directions 91
3．Methods 92
3.1 Methods for investigating behavior 92
3.1.1 Psychological experiments 92
3.1.2 Naturalistic observation and ethnography 93
3.1.3 Linguistic methodologies 94
3.1.4 Eye-tracking 94
3.2 Neuroscience techniques 95
3.2.1 Neuropsychology and lesion studies 95
3.2.2 Brain imaging 96
3.2.3 Event-related potentials 97
3.3 Computational techniques 97
3.3.1 Computational modeling 97
3.3.2 Corpus research 98
4．Issues 99
4.1 The mind-body problem 99
4.2 From genes to behavior 100
4.3 Representation and rationality 101
5．Cognitive science and pragmatics 102
5.1 Definition 102
5.2 Methods 103
5.3 Issues 103
5.4 Convergent interests 103
5.4.1 World knowledge and cultural knowledge 103
5.4.2 Mappings 104
5.4.3 Conceptual integration 105
5.5 Conclusions 106
Comprehension vs.production 110
J.Cooper Cutting 110
1．Introduction 110
2．The structure of the lexicon 112
3．Building syntax 115
4．The speaker as a listener 117
5．Conclusions 120
Connectionism 126
Ton Weijters＆Antal van denBosch 126
1．Introduction 126
2．Connectionist modeling 126
2.1 Learning within the perceptron 128
2.2 Backpropagation 129
2.3 Self-organizing feature maps 130
3．Connectionist modeling and pragmatics 131
4．Discussion 133
Consciousness and language 135
Wallace Chafe 136
1．Properties of consciousness 136
2．Foci of consciousness 137
3．Activation cost 139
4．Discourse topics 140
5．Immediacy and displacement 142
6．Conclusion 144
Developmental psychology 146
Susan M.Ervin-Tripp 146
1．Historical overview 146
2．The concept of development 147
3．Major research issues 147
3.1 Causes of development 147
3.2 Continuities and discontinuities 148
3.3 Critical periods 148
3.4 Individual and group differences 148
4．Points of view on development 148
4.1 Biological-maturational perspectives 148
4.2 Triggering theories 149
4.3 Constructivism 149
4.4 Socialization and learning 149
5．Methods of study 149
5.1 Longitudinal vs.cross-sectional studies 150
5.2 Comparative and ethnographic research 150
5.3 Individual differences 150
5.4 Sampling and generalization 151
6．Pragmatic perspectives on development 151
7．Some relations of pragmatics to developmental issues 152
7.1 Sources of language development 152
7.2 Language of reference in relation to cognition 152
7.3 Effects of talk on thought 152
7.4 The relation of social development and language 153
7.5 The development of instrumental language 153
7.6 Egocentrism,perspective-taking,social cognition and language change 153
7.7 Play with and through language 153
7.8 Learning social styles and identities 154
7.9 Bilingualism and bicultural development 154
8．Collaborative research potential 154
Experimentation 157
Dominiek Sandra 157
1．Theoretical approaches to science 157
2．Empirical approaches to science 160
3．Experimentation 162
3.1 Issues in experimental design 162
3.1.1 Operationalization of the experimental hypothesis 162
3.1.2 Independent and dependent variables 164
3.1.3 Choosing the dependent variable：How to best tap into the targeted process 165
3.1.4 The orthogonal experimental design 167
3.1.5 The concept of matching and the necessity of a control condition 168
3.1.6 Manipulations within or between participants(or items) 169
3.1.7 The counterbalancing technique 171
3.2 The rationale behind statistical significance testing 174
3.2.1 Basic assumption：The observed difference is due to chance 174
3.2.2 Calling a result statistically significant is taking a calculated risk 176
3.2.3 Main effects and interaction effects 177
3.3 Statistical tests 179
3.3.1 Types of measurement scales 179
3.3.2 Non-parametric statistics 180
3.3.2.1 The chi-square test 180
3.3.2.2 The Wilcoxon and Mann-Whitney test 183
3.3.3 Parametric statistics 183
3.3.3.1 Some general remarks 183
3.3.3.2 The Student's t-test 185
3.3.3.3 Analysis of variance(ANOVA) 191
3.3.3.4 Measuring the associative strength between variables 195
4．Conclusion 198
Language acquisition 201
Steven Gillis＆Dorit Ravid 201
1．Introduction 201
2．Central issues and main controversies 203
2.1 Nativism 204
2.2 Modularity 206
2.3 Lexical principles 207
2.4 Empiricism 209
2.5 Learning mechanisms：Bootstrapping 213
2.5.1 Distributional bootstrapping 214
2.5.2 Semantic bootstrapping 214
2.5.3 Syntactic bootstrapping 215
2.5.4 Prosodic bootstrapping 216
2.6 Variation 217
2.6.1 Crosslinguistic variation 218
2.6.2 Inter-individual variation 219
2.6.3 Intra-individual variation 220
3．Methodologies 221
3.1 Large-scale corpora collections 222
3.2 Computer simulations 223
3.3 Brain imaging techniques 224
4．Early language development：A quantitative description 226
5．Early language development：A qualitative description 228
6．Later language development 229
6.1 Development during the school years 231
6.2 The nature of later linguistic acquisition 234
6.2.1 Developing reflective linguistic abilities 234
6.2.2 Continuing linguistic development 236
Metalinguistic awareness 250
Elizabeth Mertz＆Johathan Yovel 250
1．Introduction 250
2．Conceptualizing metalanguage 251
2.1 Metalanguage and object language 251
2.2 Constitutive and creative functions of metalanguage 252
3．Metalanguage,metalinguistic activity,and metalinguistic awareness 254
3.1 The problem of metalinguistic awareness 254
3.2 Language structure and metapragmatic awareness 255
3.3 Metapragmatic performance,social power,and cultural context 257
4．Linguistic/empirical studies of metalinguistic structure,activity,and awareness 259
5．Linguistic ideology 261
6．Awareness and intentionality：Cognitive and developmental approaches to metalinguistic activity 262
6.1 Metalinguistic activity in learning to write 264
6.2 Metalinguistic awareness in young children and schoolchildren 265
7．Conclusion：Metalinguistic creativity,awareness,and the social structuring of communication 266
Perception and language 272
Roger Lindsay 272
1．Overview and introduction 272
2．Relativity and determinism 273
2.1 Perception,language and higher-order cognitive processes 275
3．Structural constraints upon cognition 278
3.1 The language-perception interface 280
3.2 The perception-action interface 282
3.3 The language-action interface 282
3.4 The perception-consciousness interface 283
3.5 The language-consciousness interface 283
3.6 The consciousness-action interface 284
4．Conclusions 284
Psycholinguistics 288
Dominiek Sandra 289
1．The birth,adolescence,and adulthood of psycholinguistics 289
2．Major goals 292
3．Major theoretical models 295
3.1 The nature of mental processes and representations 296
3.1.1 The early models 296
3.1.2 Interactive-activation models 297
3.1.3 Connectionist models 299
3.1.4 Exemplar models 301
3.2 Rules or no rules：That's the question 302
4．Major methodologies 303
4.1 Corpus research 303
4.2 Experimentation 304
4.2.1 Chronometric studies 305
4.2.2 Brain imaging 307
4.3 Simulation 308
5．Major research techniques 309
5.1 Using single words to discover important representational factors 309
5.2 Priming 311
5.3 Inducing interference 315
6．Studies on language perception 317
6.1 The process of visual word recognition 317
6.1.1 Processes at the prelexical processing level 317
6.1.1.1 Prelexical morphological decomposition 317
6.1.1.2 Prelexical phonological recoding 319
6.1.2 Factors determining the accessibility of a lexical representation 320
6.1.2.1 Factors affecting the strength of a lexical representation 320
6.1.2.2 Factors affecting the selection of a lexical representation 323
6.2 The spelling process 328
6.2.1 Spelling development 328
6.2.1.1 Stage models 328
6.2.1.2 Implicit learning of spelling principles 329
6.2.2 Experienced spellers：What their spelling errors tell us 331
6.2.2.1 The effect of relative homophone frequency 331
6.2.2.2 The effect of words in the proximity 332
7．Spoken language processing 333
7.1 Speech perception 333
7.1.1 Finding the speech sounds 334
7.1.1.1 Categorical perception 334
7.1.1.2 Perceptual learning of category boundaries 335
7.1.1.3 Feedback from lexical representations to phoneme representations? 338
7.1.2 Finding the words in a sentence 340
7.1.2.1 The importance of the rhythmical heuristic 341
7.1.2.2 The contribution of lexical competition 344
7.1.2.3 The possible word constraint 345
7.1.2.4 Reliance on statistical regularities 346
7.1.2.5 Reliance on subtle acoustic cues 348
7.2 Speech production 348
7.2.1 Speech error research 349
7.2.2 Experiments on speech production 352
7.2.2.1 The picture-word interference paradigm 353
7.2.2.2 Implicit priming 355
7.2.2.3 Producing multiple words 357
7.2.2.4 Models of speech production 358
8．Conclusion 359
The multilingual lexicon 369
Ton Dijkstra 369
1．The multilingual processing system 369
2．Multilingualism and word recognition 370
3．Multilingualism and special words：Cognates 373
4．Multilingualism and special words：False friends 375
5．Multilingualism and sentence processing 378
6．The BIA+model and sentence processing 379
7．Empirical studies on bilingual sentence processing 380
8．The multilingual lexicon：Present and future research 383
Index 389