Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1.1 Research Orientation 1
1.2 Rationale 1
1.3 The Scope of Inquiry 6
1.4 Theoretical Considerations 10
1.5 Organization of the Book 14
Chapter 2 The Acquisition of Modality 16
2.1 Modality 16
2.1.1 Definition and Classification 16
2.1.2 The English Modal System 19
2.1.3 The Chinese Modal System 23
2.2 L1 Acquisition of Modality 27
2.2.1 Naturalistic Longitudinal Studies 27
2.2.2 Experimental Studies 31
2.3 L2 Acquisition of Modality 33
2.3.1 Longitudinal Studies 33
2.3.2 Learner Corpus Studies 37
2.3.3 Experimental Studies 43
2.4 Limitations of Previous Studies 46
2.5 Summary 48
Chapter 3 Methodology 49
3.1 Research Questions 49
3.2 The NS Corpus Study 53
3.2.1 Introduction 53
3.2.2 Corpora Used in This Study 56
3.2.3 Data Analysis 60
3.3 The Pedagogic Corpus Study 63
3.3.1 Introduction 63
3.3.2 The Pedagogic Corpus Used in This Study 64
3.3.3 Data Analysis 64
3.4 The Learner Corpus Study 65
3.4.1 Introduction 65
3.4.2 Corpora Used in This Study 65
3.4.3 Data Analysis 69
3.5 The Experimental Study 75
3.5.1 Introduction 75
3.5.2 Participants 78
3.5.3 Instruments and Materials 79
3.5.4 Data Collection Procedures 81
3.5.5 Data Analysis 82
Chapter 4 Modality in Contemporary English,Textbooks and Learners'Language 84
4.1 Modality in Contemporary English 84
4.1.1 General Findings 84
4.1.2 Modal Expressions of Epistemic Possibility 89
4.1.3 Modal Expressions of Root Necessity 96
4.1.4 Modal Expressions of Volition and Prediction 104
4.1.5 Summary 118
4.2 Modality in the Textbooks 119
4.2.1 General Findings 119
4.2.2 Modal Expressions of Epistemic Possibility 121
4.2.3 Modal Expressions of Root Necessity 123
4.2.4 Modal Expressions of Volition and Prediction 126
4.2.5 Summary 129
4.3 Modality in Learners'Language:Deviation from the Norm 130
4.3.1 General Findings 130
4.3.2 Modal Expressions of Epistemic Possibility 132
4.3.3 Modal Expressions of Root Necessity 134
4.3.4 Modal Expressions of Volition and Prediction 136
4.3.5 Summary 141
4.4 Modality in Learners'Language:Modal Development 142
4.4.1 General Findings 142
4.4.2 Modal Expressions of Epistemic Possibility 144
4.4.3 Modal Expressions of Root Necessity 145
4.4.4 Modal Expressions of Volition and Prediction 147
4.4.5 Summary 150
4.5 Modality in Learners'Language:Individual Differences 151
4.5.1 General Findings 151
4.5.2 Modal Expressions of Epistemic Possibility 155
4.5.3 Modal Expressions of Root Necessity 157
4.5.4 Modal Expressions of Volition and Prediction 161
4.5.5 Summary 175
Chapter 5 Constructing the IL Modal System 177
5.1 The Inherent Complexity of the English Modality 177
5.2 The Role of Instruction 180
5.2.1 Instructional Input 181
5.2.2 Instructional Support 184
5.2.3 Summary 187
5.3 Learner Factors 187
5.3.1 L1 Influence 188
5.3.2 Universal Constraints 190
5.3.3 L2 Proficiency 194
5.3.4 Learner Needs and Learner Agency 195
5.3.5 Learner Awareness 198
5.3.6 The Role of Output Practice 199
5.4 The Dynamic Interaction of Contributing Factors 201
5.4.1 The Acquisition and Use of the Epistemic Markers 202
5.4.2 The Acquisition and Use of the Root Necessity Modals 207
5.4.3 The Acquisition and Use of the Volition and Prediction Modals(Ⅰ) 210
5.4.4 The Acquisition and Use of the Volition and Prediction Modals(Ⅱ) 214
5.5 Towards a General Understanding of L2 Modal Acquisition 216
5.6 Summary 224
Chapter 6 Conclusion 226
6.1 Summary of Major Findings 226
6.2 Theoretical and Methodological Implications 228
6.2.1 Usage-Based Model vs.Corpus-Based Analysis 228
6.2.2 Group Data vs.Individual Data 230
6.2.3 Oral Data vs.Written Data 232
6.2.4 Production Data vs.Other Types of Data 232
6.3 Implications for Modal Instruction 234
6.3.1 Providing Better Modal Input 234
6.3.2 Providing More Input-Processing Tasks and Focus-on-Form Activities 235
6.3.3 Providing More Effective Explicit Instruction 237
6.3.4 Teaching Modals When Learner Are Developmentally Ready 241
6.3.5 Providing More Awareness-Raising Activities 242
6.3.6 Providing Opportunity for Practice 243
6.4 Suggestions for Future Research 245
6.5 Concluding Remarks 247
References 249
Appendices 270
Appendix 1 Materials Used in CASEC 270
Appendix 2 A Pilot Study 272
Appendix 3 Topics in the Writing Task 282
Appendix 4 Topics in the Oral Task 287
Appendix 5 The Translation Test 288
Appendix 6 The Discourse Completion Test 293
Appendix 7 The Acceptability Judgment Test 297
Appendix 8 The Opened Questionnaire 299
Appendix 9 Participants'256 Essays(Sample) 302
Appendix 10 Participants'Sixteen Conversations (Sample) 303
Appendix 11 Participants'Performance in the Translation Test 305
Appendix 12 Participants'Performance in the Discourse Competition Test 315
Appendix 13 Participants'Performance in the Acceptability Judgment Test 325
Appendix 14 Participants'Answers to Questions in the Opened Questionnaire 327
Appendix 15 Sample of Interviews 351
Appendix 16 Post-experiment Investigations(Sample) 355
List of Tables 29
2.1 Modal devices of epistemic possibility used by ten children 29
2.2 Comparison of children's and adults'distribution of modal forms 30
3.1 Description of collection procedures and data available from each of the three children 60
3.2 The spoken corpora used in this study 67
3.3 The written corpora used in this study 69
3.4 Information of sixteen participants 78
4.1 Frequencies of modals in the four written corpora 85
4.2 Frequencies of modal expressions in Frown and CASEC 86
4.3 Frequencies of modal expressions in CHILDES sample 88
4.4 Distribution of the epistemic markers in six corpora(per million words) 93
4.5 A syntactic comparison of HAVE TO and HAVE GOT TO in CASEC 101
4.6 The main verb collocates with the volition/prediction modals in CASEC 108
4.7 Frequencies of modal expressions in the pedagogic corpus and the three NS corpora(per million words) 119
4.8 Comparison of modal expressions used by native speakers and advanced Chinese EFL learners 131
4.9 Distribution of WOULD in NS and NNS spoken and written corpus(per 100,000 words) 138
4.10 Comparison of modal expressions used by different proficiency groups(per 100,000 words) 142
4.11 Distribution of WOULD in NS and NNS corpora(per 100,000 words) 149
4.12 Modal profile by participants in Group1 151
4.13 Modal profile by participants in Group2 153
4.14 Modal profile by participants in Group3 154
4.15 Distribution of WOULD in argumentative writing 162
4.16 WILL and BE GOING TO in conversations and translations 163
5.1 Comparison of instructional input and learner output(per 100,000 words) 182
5.2 Correlation between the pedagogic corpus and the six learner corpora 183
List of Figures 17
2.1 Two concepts of modality 17
2.2 The position of SHOULD in the English modal system 22
3.1 The relationship among different types of study 50
3.2 The relationship among six corpora used in this study 57
4.1 The epistemic markers in spoken and written American English 89
4.2 Distribution of MAY and MIGHT in 15 genres of the Frown corpus 92
4.3 Distribution of MAYBE and PERHAPS in 15 genres of the Frown corpus 94
4.4 Distribution of the obligation/necessity modals in CASEC 97
4.5 Distribution of the obligation/necessity modals in the Frown corpus 97
4.6 Frequencies of the volition/prediction modals in CASEC and Frown 104
4.7 Frequency of will,be going to,'ll and (be) gonna in CASEC 106
4.8 Distribution of the epistemic markers in the three learner spoken corpora 144
4.9 Distribution of the epistemic markers in the three learner written corpora 145
4.10 Distribution of the root necessity modals in the three learner spoken corpora 146
4.11 Distribution of the root necessity modals in the three learner written corpora 146
4.12 Distribution of the volition/prediction modals in the three learner oral corpora 147
4.13 Distribution of the volition/prediction modals in the three learner written corpora 148
4.14 Distribution of the epistemic markers in conversation 156
4.15 Distribution of the epistemic markers in argumentative writing 156
4.16 Distribution of the root necessity modals in conversation 157
4.17 Distribution of the root necessity modals in argumentative writing 157
4.18 Distribution of the volition/prediction modals in conversation 161
4.19 Distribution of the volition/prediction modals in argumentative writing 162
5.1 The blocking effect of six competitors in learners'oral production 206
5.2 The historical process of learning MUST,HAVE TO,and HAVE GOT TO 209
5.3 The concept of time and tense markers 212