Chapter 1 Defining a Paradigm for Business Communication across Cultures 1
1.1 Definition of Communication 2
1.1.1 Definition by Traditional Chinese Culture 2
1.1.2 Definitions by Modern Western Scholars 3
1.2 Purposes and Principles of Communication 5
1.2.1 Purposes of Communication 5
1.2.2 Principles of Communication 6
1.3 Elements of Communication 8
1.3.1 Communicators:Sender-Receivers 8
1.3.2 Messages and Codes 8
1.3.3 Channels—Media Mix 9
1.3.4 Feedback after Decoding the Messages 10
1.3.5 Noise—Barriers for Effective Communication 10
1.3.6 Setting—Context Dependency 11
1.4 A Paradigm for Business Communication 11
1.5 Context of Business Communication:Global Business Environment 13
1.5.1 A Brief Introduction to Global Business Environment 13
1.5.2 Developing Stages of Global Business 15
1.5.3 Defining Global Business Activities—Global Market Entry Modes 16
1.5.4 The Latest Development of Global Economy—Global Capitalism 18
1.5.5 Defining cross Cultural Business Activities 20
1.6 Contextual Elements of Business Communication 21
1.6.1 Indirect Environmental Factors:Intemational and Domestic Context 22
1.6.2 Direct Environmental Factors—Organizational Context 24
1.7 A Conceptual Paradigm for Business Communication across Cultures 26
1.7.1 Disciplines Involved 26
1.7.2 Variables selected 27
1.7.3 Constructing a Conceptual Paradigm for Business Communication across Cultures 28
1.8 Review and Discussion 29
Reference 30
Chapter 2 Organizational Strategies and Communication Strategies 32
2.1 Definition and Categories of Strategies 32
2.1.1 Definition of Strategies 33
2.1.2 Categories of Strategies 33
2.2 Corporate Strategies 34
2.3 Business Strategies 35
2.4 International Corporate and Business Strategies 36
2.4.1 Bases for Developing International Strategies 36
2.4.2 Driving Forces for International Strategies 37
2.4.3 Porter's Model of International Strategies 38
2.5 An Integrated Model of International Corporate and Business Strategies 39
2.6 Relations between Strategies and Communication 40
2.7 Communication Strategies 41
2.7.1 Definition of Communication Strategies 41
2.7.2 Intra-Organizational Communication Strategies 42
2.8 Framework for Inter-organizational Communication Strategies 45
2.9 Communication Strategies Based on Business and Corporate Strategies 47
2.9.1 Global Information Leadership Strategy for Communication 47
2.9.2 Persuasive Communication Strategy for National Differentiation 48
2.9.3 Communication Strategy for Dialogue between Cultures 49
2.9.4 Communication Strategies for Constructing Consensus between Cultures 50
2.10 Review and Discussion 50
Reference 50
Chapter 3 Culture,Organizational Culture and Communication Strategies 52
3.1 Definitions and Elements of Cultures 52
3.1.1 Definitions of Cultures 52
3.1.2 Elements of Culture 53
3.2 Dimensions and Theoretical Frameworks of Cultures 54
3.2.1 Cultural Frameworks:Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck 54
3.2.2 Cultural Frameworks:Trompenaar and Hampden-Turner 57
3.2.3 Cultural Frameworks:Geert Hofstede 58
3.2.4 Cultural Frameworks:Hall 63
3.2.5 Cultural Frameworks:Cultural Dimension by GLOBE Scholars 64
3.3 Organizational Cultures 65
3.3.1 Definition of Organizational Culture 66
3.3.2 Types of Organizational Cultures 67
3.3.3 Levels of Organizational Culture 68
3.4 Relations between Cultures and International Strategies of Organizations 70
3.4.1 Cultural Influence on Strategy-Making 70
3.4.2 Culture Determining Cognition of External Opportunity and Threats 71
3.5 Organizational Culture Determining Internal Strategic Selection 72
3.6 Cultures Determining Formulation of International Business Strategies 75
3.7 Cultural Elements of Intemational Business Strategies 75
3.8 Cultures Synergizing Organizational Growth Strategies 77
3.8.1 Cultures Synergizing Organizational Growth Strategies 77
3.8.2 Match between Culture,Business Strategies and Performance 79
3.9 A Framework of Strategies for Business Communication across Cultures 79
3.9.1 Ethnocentric Communication Strategy 79
3.9.2 Polycentric Communication Strategy 80
3.9.3 Regioncentric Communication Strategy 80
3.9.4 Geocentric Communication Strategy 80
3.10 Culture Determinates Communication Styles and Language Strategies 81
3.10.1 Roundabout Style of Communication 81
3.10.2 Explanation-First Style Communication 82
3.10.3 Detail-Focus Communication Style 83
3.10.4 Cultural Influences on Japanese Communication Style 83
3.11 Culture and Communication Strategies for Building Business Relations 84
3.12 Review and Discussion 88
Reference 90
Chapter 4 Language,Culture and cross Cultural Communication Strategies 92
4.1 Functions and Structures of Language 93
4.1.1 Functions of Language 93
4.1.2 Structures of Language 95
4.1.3 Definitions of Business Communication across Cultures:Language Perspective 96
4.2 Relations between Language and Culture 96
4.2.1 Language Reflecting Environment 96
4.2.2 Language Reflecting Culture Reality and Values 97
4.2.3 Cultural Implications ofLanguage 98
4.2.4 Linguistic Relativity and Sapir-Whorf hypothesis 105
4.3 Representation Model of the World of Experience 106
4.4 Dynamic Model of Languageand Culture 107
4.4.1 Language Produces Culture 108
4.4.2 Culture Determines Language Style in Communication 109
4.5 Relations between Culture,Language and Communication 111
4.6 Contextual Framework of Cross Cultural Business Communication 112
4.6.1 Framework of Relations between Text and Context 113
4.6.2 High Context and Low Context Communication Orientation 114
4.7 Context and Cross Cultural Business Communication Strategies 117
4.7.1 Task-Centered and Relation-CenteredCommunication 117
4.7.2 Media Selection in Contexts 117
4.7.3 Effectiveness of Written and Spoken Words 118
4.7.4 Language Styles 119
4.7.5 Direct and Indirect Communication Strategies 119
4.7.6 Cultural Implications of Responding Strategies 120
4.7.7 Expressive and Instrumental Strategies 121
4.8 Review and Discussion 122
Reference 123
Chapter 5 Language Strategies 125
5.1 Co-operative Principles 126
5.1.1 Maxim of Quantity 127
5.1.2 Maxim of Quality 127
5.1.3 Maxim of Relation 128
5.1.4 Maxim of Manner 128
5.2 Politeness Principles 129
5.2.1 Tact Maxim and Generosity Maxim 130
5.2.2 Approbation Maxim and Modesty Maxim 130
5.2.3 Agreement Maxim and Sympathy Maxim 130
5.2.4 Tactics of Negative and Positive Politeness 131
5.2.5 Adapting Politeness Principle to cross Cultural Communication 132
5.3 Language Strategies for Maintaining Face in Communication 133
5.3.1 Definitions and Characteristics of Face 134
5.3.2 Social Needs of Face 135
5.3.3 Principles for Maintaining Face in Communication 136
5.3.4 A Model of Face Practices of Chinese Businesspersons 138
5.4 Language Strategies for Written Communication 141
5.4.1 Language Strategies in Low-Context 141
5.4.2 Language Strategies in High-Context 141
5.5 Language Formality in cross Cultural Business Communication 142
5.5.1 Characteristics of Informal Language 143
5.5.2 Characteristics of Formal Language 144
5.5.3 Proper Formality:Formal or Informal 144
5.6 Vague Language Strategies for cross Cultural Business Communication 144
5.6.1 Definition of Vague Language 145
5.6.2 Functions of Vague Languages in cross Cultural Business Communication 146
5.6.3 Pragmatic Vagueness and Offer Strategies 149
5.7 Review and Discussion 150
Reference 151
Chapter 6 A Paradigm for Encoding and Decoding Messages 153
6.1 A Paradigm for Encoding and Decoding Messages 154
6.1.1 Structuring the Paradigm 155
6.1.2 Media and Channel of Messages 157
6.2 Rule Systems in Verbal Codes 158
6.2.1 Verbal Environment in Communication 158
6.2.2 Rule Systems in Verbal Codes 159
6.3 Encoding Rules of Nonverbal Communication 161
6.3.1 Principles of Nonverbal Communication 162
6.3.2 Nonverbal Communication Is Culturally Determined 163
6.3.3 Common Nonverbal Signs in Communication 163
6.4 Strategies for Effective Business Presentation across Cultures 166
6.4.1 Cultural Appropriateness of Topics and Subjects 167
6.4.2 Proper Balance between Message Text and Message Context 168
6.4.3 Acceptable Presentation Behaviors 169
6.4.4 Convincing Conversational Formalities 172
6.5 Message Transforming:From Visual to Verbal Messages 172
6.5.1 Types of VisualAids 172
6.5.2 Rules for Using Visual Aids 173
6.6 Review and Discussion 174
Reference 175
Chapter 7 Discourse Structuring Strategies 176
7.1 Discourse Structure Analyses 176
7.1.1 Elements of a Discourse 177
7.1.2 Macro-Structure of a Discourse 178
7.2 Structuring Macro Discourses 178
7.2.1 Configuration Theories and Perceptual Psychology 179
7.2.2 Bottom-Up Discourse Structuring 179
7.2.3 Top-Down Discourse Structuring 180
7.2.4 Intra-discourse Structuring:Coherence 180
7.3 Discourse Structuring Strategies for Business Letters 181
7.3.1 Discourse Structuring Strategies for Business Letters 182
7.3.2 Language Rules and Styles of Business Letters 184
7.3.3 Analyzing Language and Style:A Practitioner's Perspective 191
7.3.4 Discourse Structure of Business Letters 192
7.4 Discourse Structuring Strategies for Memoranda 194
7.4.1 Message Encoding Rules 194
7.4.2 Analyzing a Memo:A Practitioner's Perspective 196
7.5 Discourse Structuring Strategies for Business Reports 197
7.5.1 Message Encoding Rules for Reports 197
7.5.2 Reports Structuring Process 199
7.5.3 Structure and Format of a Report 201
7.5.4 Classification of Reports 203
7.5.5 Transmitting Reports 203
7.6 Discourse Structuring Strategies for Email 204
7.6.1 Encoding Rules for Email Messages 204
7.6.2 Format of Email Messages 205
7.7 Review and Discussion 206
Reference 206
Chapter 8 Marketing Communication across Cultures 208
8.1 Communication Environment 209
8.1.1 Business,Corporate and Marketing Strategies 209
8.1.2 Culture and Language Context 211
8.1.3 Legal Context 212
8.2 A Paradigm for cross Cultural Marketing Communication 213
8.2.1 Marketing Communication 213
8.2.2 Marketing Communication Mix 214
8.2.3 Marketing Communication Objectives 215
8.2.4 Integrated Marketing Communication 215
8.2.5 Structuring the Paradigm 217
8.3 A Model of cross Cultural Marketing Communication Strategies 220
8.3.1 Strategy for Marketing Communication of Global Standardization 220
8.3.2 Strategy for Marketing Communication of Transnational Adaptation 221
8.3.3 Strategy for Marketing Communication of National Differentiation 221
8.3.4 Strategy for Marketing Communication of Local Adaptation 222
8.4 Cultural Codes in cross Cultural Marketing Messages 223
8.4.1 Cultural Codes of Products in the Message 223
8.4.2 Targeting Cultural Codes in Consuming Behaviors 226
8.4.3 Bridging the Cultural Codes of Products and Consumer Behaviors 227
8.5 Lingual Codes in cross Cultural Marketing Communication 229
8.5.1 Relations of Language and Culture Reviewed 229
8.5.2 Semiotics in Marketing Communication 230
8.5.3 A Constructive Process of the Meaning of Signs 231
8.6 Strategies for Establishing Business Relations 232
8.6.1 Guideline for Avoiding cross Cultural Marketing Mistakes 232
8.6.2 Strategies for Initiating and Maintaining Relationship 233
8.6.3 Encoding Strategies for Establishing Business Relations 234
8.7 Persuasive Strategies and the Function of Sales Letters 240
8.7.1 The Managers'Overall Criteria for Effective Sales Letters 240
8.7.2 The Managers'Views on the Best Sales Letters 241
Appendix 245
8.8 Message Encoding Strategies for Marketing Plans 247
8.8.1 Defining Marketing Plan 247
8.8.2 Message Content of a Marketing Plan 247
8.8.3 Message Structure of a Marketing Plan 248
8.9 Review and Discussion 254
Reference 255
Chapter 9 Advertising Communication across Cultures 257
9.1 Communication Environment 257
9.1.1 Corporate and Business Strategies 257
9.1.2 Marketing Communication Strategies 258
9.1.3 Culture and Language Context 258
9.1.4 Legal Context 259
9.2 A Paradigm for cross Cultural Advertising Communication 261
9.2.1 Definition of cross Cultural Advertising Communication 261
9.2.2 Description of the Paradigm 262
9.3 A Model of cross Cultural Advertising Communication Strategies 263
9.3.1 Global Standardization Advertising Strategy 264
9.3.2 Transnational Adaptation Advertising Strategy 265
9.3.3 National Differentiation Advertising Strategy 266
9.3.4 Local Adaptation Advertising Strategy 266
9.4 The Message Creative Strategy for Advertising 267
9.4.1 Cultural Codes of Products in the Message 267
9.4.2 Targeting Cultural Codes in Consuming Behaviors 268
9.4.3 Integrating Cultural Codes in Appeals 269
9.5 Lingual Codes in cross Cultural Advertising Communication 274
9.5.1 Lingual Codes and Culture in Advertising 274
9.5.2 Meaning Transfer in Lingual Codes 276
9.5.3 Pragmatics Presupposition in Advertising 278
9.5.4 Lingual Structure Analysis of Adverting Slogans 280
9.5.5 A Mixed-Language Approach to Communicating Advertising Messages 283
9.5.6 Non-Verbal Communication in Advertising 283
9.6 Cross Cultural Advertising Communication Styles 284
9.6.1 Basic Advertising Forms 284
9.6.2 Comparative Advertising Communication Styles in Different Cultures 285
9.6.3 Different Advertising Communication Styles 286
9.7 Media Strategies for Advertising Communication 287
9.8 Message Encoding Strategies for an Advertising Plan 288
9.8.1 Message Encoding Strategies 288
9.8.2 Message Content,Format and Structure of an Advertising Plan 290
9.9 Review and Discussion 292
Reference 293
Chapter 10 Negotiation Communication across Cultures 294
10.1 Cross Cultural Negotiating Environment 294
10.1.1 Business and Corporate Strategies 295
10.1.2 Culture and Language Context 296
10.1.3 Legal Context 296
10.2 Cross Cultural Negotiating Process 298
10.2.1 Making Enquiries and Offers 298
10.2.2 Destructuralizing Culture and Language in Offers 300
10.2.3 Making Feedbacks:Count-Offers 300
10.2.4 Agreement:Acceptances 301
10.2.5 Signing an International Business Contract 301
10.3 Cultural Responsive Strategies for cross Cultural Negotiation 302
10.3.1 Basic Frameworks of Negotiating Strategies 302
10.3.2 Cultural Responsive Strategies for Negotiation 303
10.3.3 Information-Sharing Strategies for cross Cultural Negotiation 304
10.3.4 Power Strategies for cross Cultural Negotiation 305
10.4 Negotiating Styles 306
10.4.1 Japanese Negotiating Styles 306
10.4.2 Sino-US Negotiation Styles 307
10.4.3 Comparative Framework of Sino-US Negotiating Styles 307
10.4.4 Different Negotiating Styles:Russians and Arabians 311
10.5 Communication Strategies for Negotiation across Cultures 312
10.5.1 Communication Strategies for Negotiating with Chinese 312
10.5.2 Communication Strategies for Negotiating with the Americans 315
10.5.3 Communication Strategies for Negotiating with the Japanese 316
10.6 Language Strategies for Face-to-Face Negotiating 318
10.6.1 Language Strategies at Each Stage of Negotiation 318
10.6.2 The Part of Speech and Communication Strategies 319
10.6.3 Tactics and the Language Patterns 321
10.6.4 Main Verbs and Actions 321
10.6.5 Language Codes for Diplomatic Strategies 323
10.7 Negotiation Styles and Guideline in Five Countries 323
10.8 Message Encoding Strategies for Negotiation 325
10.8.1 Strategies forthe Source Message:Offer 325
10.8.2 Strategies for Feedback Messages:Counter-Offers 326
10.8.3 Strategies for Agreement Messages:Acceptances 326
10.8.4 Message Format 327
10.9 Message Encoding Strategies for an International Business Contract 329
10.10 Review and Discussion 331
Appendix:Message Format and Content of an International Contract 332
Reference 338