Part One 3
Chapter 1 Language and Linguistics 3
1.1．Nature and Properties of Human Language 3
1.1.1．The nature of human language 4
1.1.2．The comparison between human language and animal communication systems 11
1.1.3．The definitions of language 15
1.2．Functions of Human Language 16
1.2.1．From a learner's individual,pragmatic point of view 16
1.2.2．From an interactive point of view 17
1.2.3．From a social point of view 18
1.3．Linguistics 19
1.3.1．The definition of linguistics 19
1.3.2．The major branches of general linguistics 20
1.3.3．The basic concepts in linguistics 21
1.3.4．The maior modern linguistic schools and theories 23
1.3.5．Representative figures of schools of linguistics 24
1.4．The Study of Language in Functional Approach 28
Topics for Discussion 29
Books for Reference 29
Exercises for the Chapter 30
Part Two 33
Chapter 2 Language,Thought and Reality 33
2.1．Early Theories Concerning the Relationship Between Language,Thought and Reality 33
2.1.1．Monism 34
2.1.2．Dualism 34
2.1.3．Saussure's Sign Theory,Richard and Ogden's Semantic Triangle 35
2.2．Sapir-Whorf Hypotheses 36
2.2.1．Introduction to Sapir and Whorf 36
2.2.2．Sapir's Linguistic Relativity 38
2.2.3．Whorf's Linguistic Determinism 39
2.3．Argument Concerning the lssue 43
2.3.1．Supporting views 43
2.3.2．Criticism on Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis 43
2.4．Other Views Concerning the Relationship Between Language,Thought and Reality 46
2.5．The Insight the Debate Has Brought to Us 46
2.6．Comparison of the Thinking Patterns of Chinese and English-Speaking People 48
Topics for Discussion 55
Books for reference 56
Exercises for the Chapter 56
Chapter 3 Language,Culture,Society and Individuals 57
3.1．The Relationship Between Language and Culture 57
3.1.1．Definitions of Culture 57
3.1.2．The nature of Culture 59
3.1.3．The universality in biology,culture and language 60
3.1.4．The peculiarity in biology,culture and language 61
3.1.5．The dialectal relation between language and culture 64
3.1.6．Problems concerning language and Culture 73
3.2．The Relationship Between Language and Society 75
3.2.1．Language is first of all a social phenomenon 75
3.2.2．Human societies are varied,so are their languages 76
3.3．The RelationshiP Between Language and Individuals 78
3.3.1．Language is an important means of survival for every individual 79
3.3.2．Language is a tool of learning for everybody 79
33.3．Every speaker has his own style 79
3.3.4．Every speaker is a member of the speech community 80
3.4．Comparison Between the Two Major Culture Models 80
3.4.1．High-Context Cultures and Low-Context Cultures 81
3.4.2．P-Time Culture and M-Time Culture 85
3.5．Cross-Cultural Communication 85
3.5.1．Problems in cross-cultural communication 86
3.5.2．The importance of non-verbal communication 88
3.5.3．The ability to communicate effectively in cross-cultural settings 89
Topics for Discussion 90
Books for Reference 90
Exercises for the Chapter 91
Chapter 4 Language in Business and Language in Politics 93
4.1．Language in Business 93
4.1.1．Language and business 94
4.1.2．English in business in a broader sense 94
4.1.3．English in business in a narrower sense 95
4.1.4．Culture and its implication in business 98
4.1.5．How to improve competence in business English? 99
4.2．Language of Political Oratory 100
4.2.1．The relationship between language and politics 100
4.2.2．The pu rpose and function of political speeches 101
4.2.3．Some textual characteristics of language used in political speeches 101
4.2.4．Some example passages of political speeches 102
Topics for Discussion 106
Books for Reference 106
Exercises for the Chapter 106
Chapter 5 Language in T ＆ L—A Functional Perspective to Language Teaching and Learning 107
5.1．A Brief Review of Major Language Teaching Methodologies 107
5.1.1．Grammar translation method 107
5.1.2．Oral-aural method 108
5.1.3．Task-based approach 108
5.1.4．Communicative language teaching 108
5.2．Functional Linguistics and Language Teaching and Learning 109
5.3．Some Broad Issues of Policy and Practice in Language Teaching from a Functional Perspective 110
5.4．A Framework of the Organization of Teaching 114
5.4.1．Teaching is an art as well as a science 115
5.4.2．Language teaching undergoes several processes 115
Topics for Discussion 116
Books for Reference 116
Exercises for the Chapter 117
Part Three 121
Chapter 6 Semantics 121
6.1．Theories Concerning Meaning 121
6.1.1．Conceptualism 122
6.1.2．Mechanism 124
6.1.3．Behaviorism 125
6.1.4．Componential Theory 126
6.1.5．Contextualism 128
6.1.6．Functionalism 130
6.2．Categorization of Meaning 131
6.2.1．The traditional approach 131
6.2.2．Pragmatic approach 132
6.2.3．The functional approach 132
6.2.4．The systemic-functional approach 135
6.3．Reference and Sense 136
6.3.1．Reference 136
6.3.2．Sense 137
6.4．Changes in the Meaning of Words 137
6.4.1．The causes of changes in word meaning 137
6.4.2．How words change meaning 139
6.5．Problems in the Study of the Sense Meaning of Words 141
6.5.1．Denotation and Connotation of words 142
6.5.2．Synonyms 144
6.5.3．Antonyms 150
6.5.4．Hyponyms 153
6.5.5．Polysemes 154
6.5.6．Homonyms 156
6.5.7．Metonyms 158
6.5.8．Retronyms 158
6.5.9．Meronyms 158
6.5.10．Nonsense Words 158
6.6．Problems in the Study of the Meaning of Sentences 159
6.6.1．Entailment 160
6.6.2．Presupposition 161
6.6.3．Implicature 163
6.6.4．Other relationships 165
6.7．Ambiguitv in English 167
6.7.1．Some characteristics of English give rise to ambiguity 168
6.7.2．Modern English is notorious for its abundance of ambiguity 168
6.7.3．Methods to avoid ambiguity 175
6.7.4．Significance of ambiguity 178
6.8．Ambiguity in Chinese 180
6.8.1．Kinds of ambiguity in Chinese 180
6.8.2．Methods to avoid most ambiguity in Chinese 182
Topics for Discussion 183
Books for Reference 183
Exercises for the Chapter 184
Chapter 7 Morphology and Lexicology 185
7.1．Morphemes and Morphology 185
7.1.1．The concept of morpheme 186
7.1.2．The two classes of morpheme 186
7.1.3．Morphs and allomorphs 188
7.1.4．Morphological rules 189
7.1.5．Morphological classification of languages in the world 190
7.2．Definition and Structure of Word 192
7.2.1．The definition of word 193
7.2.2．The structure of word 194
7.2.3．The classification of word 196
73．Word Formation in English and Chjnese 197
7.3.1．Derivation(Affixation)in English 197
7.3.2．Conversion(Zero-Derivation)in English 211
7.3.3．Compounding in English 213
7.3.4．Blending(portmanteau words)in English 218
73.5．Shortening(Clipping)in English 219
7.3.6．Initials(acronyms)in English 220
7.3.7．Abbreviation in English 221
7.3.8．Echoic words(onomatopoeia)in English 221
7.3.9．Back-formation in English 221
7.3.10．Change from proper nouns into common nouns in English 222
7.3.11．Coinage(neologisms through invention)in English 222
7.3.12．Folk Etymology in English 223
Reference:Word-formation in Chinese 224
7.4．Idioms and Collocations 231
7.4.1．Idioms 231
7.4.2．Collocations 236
7.5．Taboo and Euphemisms 238
7.5.1．Taboo 238
7.5.2．Euphemisms 239
7.6．Origins of Modern English Vocabulary(Etymology of English) 249
7.6.1．Words of Old English 250
7.6.2．Celtic loans 252
7.6.3．Scandinavian loans 253
7.6.4．Latin loans 254
7.6.5．French loans 257
7.6.6．Greek loans 260
7.6.7．German loans 261
7.6.8．Dutch loans 262
7.6.9．Ital ian loans 263
7.6.10．Spanish loans 263
7.6.11．Portuguese loans 263
7.6.12．Russian loans 263
7.6.13．Czech loans 264
7.6.14．North American Indian loans 264
7.6.15．Loans from Mexican 264
7.6.16．Loans from languages in Cuba and the West lndies 264
7.6.17．Loans from languages in Peru 264
7.6.18．Loans from Ianguages in Brazil 264
7.6.19．Loans from languages of Australian Aborigines 264
7.6.20．Loans from languages in India 264
7.6.21．Loans from languages in Africa 265
7.6.22．Loans from Arabic 265
7.6.23．Loans from Hebrew 265
7.6.24．Loans from Turkish 265
7.6.25．Loans from the language of Eskimo 265
7.6.26．Loans from Malayan 265
7.6.27．Loans from Korean 265
7.6.28．Loans from Japanese 266
7.6.29．Loans from Chinese 266
Reference:Loan words in Chinese 267
Topics for Discussion 270
Books for Reference 270
Exercises for the Chapter 270
Chapter 8 Syntax 273
8.1．Traditional Approach 274
8.1.1．The concept of Syntactic Categories 274
8.1.2．Concord and Government 277
8.1.3．The Chinese language in traditional grammar 279
8.2．Structu ral Approach 280
8.2.1．The Three Syntactic Relations 282
8.2.2．Construction and constituent 284
8.2.3．Immediate Constituent Analysis 286
8.2.4．The advantages and problems of Structural Approach 288
8.3．Transformational Generative Approach 289
8.3.1．Chomsky's Innate Hypothesis 291
8.3.2．Chomsky's Distinction Between Competence 291
8.3.3．Generative Grammar 291
8.3.4．Transformational Grammar 295
8.3.5．Ambiguity solved bv TG Grammar 298
8.3.6．Recent Development in Transformational-Generative G rammar 300
8.3.7．Sinificance and Limitations in Transformational-Generative Grammar 301
8.4．Functional Grammar 303
8.4.1．The Prague School 304
8.4.2．The London School of Linguistics 304
8.4.3．SystemiC Functional G rammar 306
Topics for Discussion 317
Books for Reference 317
Exercises for the Chapter 318
Chapter 9 Phonetics and Phonology 319
9.1．Phonetics 319
9.1.1．Phonetics 320
9.1.2．The Speech Organs 320
9.1.3．Consonants 321
9.1.4．Vowels 323
9.2．Phonology 324
9.2.1．Phonemes 325
9.2.2．Distinctiveness 325
9.2.3．Minimal pairs 326
9.2.4．Phones and Allophones 327
9.3．Phonological Rules 328
9.3.1．Assimilation rules 328
9.3.2．Aspiration rule 329
9.3.3．Deletion rule 329
9.3.4．Addition rule 330
9.3.5．Flap rule 330
9.3.6．Metathesis rules 330
9.4．Phonetic Transcription 331
9.4.1．The need for a phonetic alphabet in English 332
9.4.2．Types of transcription 333
9.5．Suprasegmental Phonemes 335
9.5.1．The Syllable 335
9.5.2．The Stress 336
9.5.3．Tones 341
9.5.4．Intonation 343
Topics for Discussion 348
Books for Reference 348
Exercises for the Chapter 348
Appendix 1 Introduction to the Course 349
Appendix 2 Syllabus for the Course 351
Appendix 3 The Constituent Structure of English Semology 354
Appendix 4 The Constituent Structure of English Grammar 355
Appendix 5 The Constituent Structure of English Phonology 356
Model Key to Exercises 357
General Bibliography 375