PART Ⅰ．FOUNDATIONS FOR CLASSROOM PRACTICE 1
Chapter 1 Getting Started 2
A Classroom Observation 3
Analyzing the Lesson 8
Topics for Discussion,Action,and Research 11
For Your Further Reading 11
Chapter 2 A"Methodical"History of Language Teaching 13
Approach,Method,and Technique 14
Changing Winds and Shifting Sands 17
The Grammar Translation Method 18
Gouin and the Series Method 19
The Direct Method 21
The Audiolingual Method 22
Cognitive Code Learning 24
"Designer"Methods of the Spirited 1970s 24
Community Language Learning 25
Suggestopedia 27
The Silent Way 28
Total Physical Response 30
The Natural Approach 31
Functional Syllabuses 32
Topics for Discussion,Action,and Research 34
For Your Further Reading 39
Chapter 3 The Postmethod Era:Toward Informed Approaches 40
The Dysfunction of the Theory-Practice Dichotomy 41
An Enlightened,Eclectic Approach 42
Communicative Language Teaching 45
Task-Based Language Teaching 50
Learner-Centered Instruction 52
Cooperative Learning 53
Interactive Learning 53
Whole Language Education 54
Content-Based Instruction 55
Other Candidates for CLT Approaches 57
Topics for Discussion,Action,and Research 58
For Your Further Reading 60
Chapter 4 Teaching by Principles 62
Cognitive Principles 63
Automaticity 64
Meaningful Learning 65
The Anticipation of Reward 66
Intrinsic Motivation 68
Strategic Investment 68
Autonomy 70
Socioaffective Principles 71
Language Ego 72
Willingness to Communicate 73
The Language-Culture Connection 74
Linguistic Principles 75
The Native Language Effect 76
Interlanguage 77
Communicative Competence 79
Topics for Discussion,Action,and Research 81
For Your Further Reading 83
Chapter 5 Intrinsic Motivation in the Classroom 84
Defining Motivation 85
A Behavioral Definition 85
Cognitive Definitions 85
A Constructivist Definition 87
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 88
Intrinsic Motivation in Eduction 90
Intrinsic Motivation in the Second Language Classroom 92
Topics for Discussion,Action,and Research 95
For Your Further Reading 97
PART Ⅱ．CONTEXTS OF LEARNING AND TEACHING 99
Chapter 6 Teaching Across Age Levels 100
Teaching Children 101
Intellectual Development 102
Attention Span 102
Sensory Input 103
Affective Factors 103
Authentic,Meaningful Language 104
Teaching Adults 104
Teaching Teens 106
Topics for Discussion,Action,and Research 107
For Your Further Reading 109
Chapter 7 Teaching Across Proficiency Levels 110
Defining Proficiency Levels 110
Teaching Beginning Levels 112
Teaching Intermediate Levels 124
Teaching Advanced Levels 127
Topics for Discussion,Action,and Research 130
For Your Further Reading 131
Chapter 8 Sociocultural,Political,and Institutional Contexts 132
Cultural Contexts 132
Second and Foreign Language Contexts 134
English as an International Language 136
Nonnative English-Speaking Teachers 137
Language Policy Issues 138
Institutional Contexts 140
Elementary and Secondary Schools 140
Post-Secondary and Adult Education 142
Institutions of Higher Education 143
Topics for Discussion,Action,and Research 144
For Your Further Reading 146
PART Ⅲ．DESIGNING AND IMPLEMENTING CLASSROOM LESSONS 147
Chapter 9 Curriculum Design 148
Curriculum Development:An Overview 149
Situation Analysis 150
Needs Analysis 152
Problematizing 153
Specifying Goals 155
Conceptualizing a Course Syllabus 156
Selecting Textbooks,Materials,and Resources 157
Assessment 158
Program Evaluation 158
Topics for Discussion,Action,and Research 161
For Your Further Reading 163
Chapter 10 Lesson Planning 164
Format of a Lesson Plan 164
Guidelines for Lesson Planning 167
Sample Lesson Plan 171
Topics for Discussion,Action,and Research 176
For Your Further Reading 178
Chapter 11 Techniques and Materials 179
Techniques Redefined 179
Categorizing Techniques:A Bit of History 181
A Taxonomy of Techniques 184
Textbooks 187
Textbook Adaptation 188
Textbook Evaluation 191
Other Texts and Visual Aids 193
Topics for Discussion,Action,and Research 194
For Your Further Reading 195
Chapter 12 Technology in the Classroom 196
Non-Computer-Based Technology 197
Computer Assisted Language Learning(CALL) 199
CALL,CMC,TMLL,orWhat? 199
Principles and Benefits of CALL 200
Uses of CALL in the Language Classroom 202
Topics for Discussion,Action,and Research 205
Some Useful Web Resources 206
For Your Further Reading 209
Chapter 13 Initiating Interaction in the Classroom 211
What is Interaction? 212
Interactive Principles 213
Roles of the Interactive Teacher 214
Foreign Language Interaction Analysis 216
Questioning Strategies for Interactive Learning 218
Topics for Discussion,Action,and Research 221
For Your Further Reading 222
Chapter 14 Sustaining Interaction through Group Work 223
Advantages of Group Work 224
Excuses for Avoiding Group Work 226
Implementing Group Work in Your Classroom 229
Evaluating Classroom Language 229
Selecting Appropriate Group Techniques 230
Planning Group Work 235
Monitoring the Task 237
Debriefing 237
Topics for Discussion,Action,and Research 238
For Your Further Reading 239
Chapter 15 Classroom Management 241
The Physical Environment of the Classroom 241
Your Voice and Body Language 243
Unplanned Teaching:Midstream Lesson Changes 244
Teaching Under Adverse Circumstances 245
Teachers'Roles and Styles 250
Creating a Positive Classroom Climate 253
Topics for Discussion,Action,and Research 254
For Your Further Reading 256
Chapter 16 Strategies-Based Instruction 257
Strategic Investment 258
Good Language Learners 259
Styles of Successful Language Learning 260
Awareness and Action 261
Developing Student Self-awareness of Styles 263
How to Teach Strategies in the Classroom 269
"Packaged"Models of SBI 276
Topics for Discussion,Action,and Research 280
For Your Further Reading 281
PART Ⅳ．TEACHING LANGUAGE SKILLS 283
Chapter 17 Integrating the"Four Skills" 284
Why Integrated Skills? 285
Models of Skills Integration 286
Content-Based Instruction 287
Task-Based Language Teaching 287
Theme-Based Instruction 288
Experiential Learning 291
The Episode Hypothesis 293
An Integrated Lesson 295
Topics for Discussion,Research,and Action 297
For Your Further Reading 298
Chapter 18 Teaching Listening 299
Listening Comprehension in Pedagogical Research 299
An Interactive Model of Listening Comprehension 301
Types of Spoken Language 303
What Makes Listening Difficult? 304
Microskills and Macroskills of Listening 307
Types of Classroom Listening Performance 308
Principles for Teaching Listening Skills 310
Listening Techniques from Beginning to Advanced 312
Assessing Listening in the Classroom 317
Understanding the terms"Assessment"and"Test" 317
Assessing Types of Listening and Micro-and Macroskills 318
Topics for Discussion,Research,and Action 319
For Your Further Reading 321
Chapter 19 Teaching Speaking 322
Oral Communication Skills in Pedagogical Research 322
Types of Spoken Language 325
What Makes Speaking Difficult? 326
Micro-and Macroskills of Oral Communication 327
Types of Classroom Speaking Performance 327
Principles for Teaching Speaking Skills 331
Teaching Conversation 332
Teaching Pronunciation 339
Focus on Form and Error Treatment 344
The Role of Feedback 345
When and How to Treat Errors 346
Assessing Speaking in the Classroom 350
Item Types and Tasks for Assessing Speaking 351
Evaluating and Scoring Speaking Tasks 352
Topics for Discussion,Action,and Research 353
For Your Further Reading 354
Chapter 20 Teaching Reading 357
Research on Reading a Second Language 357
Genres of Written Language 362
Characteristics of Written Language 363
Micro-and Macroskills for Reading Comprehension 366
Strategies for Reading Comprehension 366
Types of Classroom Reading Performance 371
Principles for Teaching Reading Skills 373
Two Reading Lessons 376
Assessing Reading 385
Topics for Discussion,Action,and Research 386
For Your Further Reading 387
Chapter 21 Teaching Writing 390
Research on Second Language Writing 390
Types of Written Language 397
Characteristics of Written Language:A Writer's View 397
Micro-and Macroskills for Writing 399
Types of Classroom Writing Performance 399
Principles for Teaching Writing Skills 402
Assessing Writing 412
Evaluation Checklists 413
Writing Assessment Tasks 414
Topics for Discussion,Action,and Research 416
For Your Further Reading 417
Chapter 22 Form-Focused Instruction 419
The Place of Grammar 420
To Teach or Not to Teach Grammar 421
Issues About How to Teach Grammar 423
Grammar Techniques 426
Grammar Sequencing in Textbooks and Curricula 431
Current Issues in Vocabulary Teaching 435
Principles for Teaching Vocabulary 436
Topics for Discussion,Action,and Research 440
For Your Further Reading 441
PART Ⅴ．ASSESSING LANGUAGE SKILLS 443
Chapter 23 Language Assessment:Principles and Issues 444
Testing,Assessing,and Teaching 444
Principles of Language Assessment 446
Practicality 446
Reliability 447
Validity 448
Content Validity 449
Face Validity 449
Construct Validity 449
Authenticity 450
Washback 451
Kinds of Tests 453
Proficiency Tests 453
Diagnostic Tests 453
Placement Tests 454
Achievement Tests 454
Aptitude Tests 454
Historical Developments in Language Assessment 455
Current Issues in Language Assessment 457
Large-Scale Language Proficiency Testing 457
Authenticity 459
Performance-Based Assessment 460
Challenges from Innovative Theories of Intelligence 461
Expanding"Alternatives"in the Classroom-Based Assessment 461
Ethical Issues:Critical Language Assessment 462
Topics for Discussion,Action,and Research 464
For Your Further Reading 465
Chapter 24 Classroom-Based Assessment 466
Norm-Referenced and Criterion-Referenced Tests 467
Some Practical Steps to Test Construction 468
Turning Existing Tests into More Effective Procedures 472
Alternatives in Assessment 475
Portfolios 475
Journals 476
Conferences 477
Observations 477
Self-and Peer-Assessments 479
Scrutinizing the Alternatives 480
Maximizing Practicality and Reliability 480
Performance-Based Assessment 481
Topics for Discussion,Action,and Research 483
For Your Further Reading 484
PART Ⅵ．LIFELONG LEARNING 485
Chapter 25 Teacher Development 486
Peak Performers 487
The"Good"Language Teacher 489
Classroom Observation 490
Classroom-Based"Action"Research 498
Teacher Collaboration:Learning from Each Other 502
Journals,Teaching Portfolios,Reading,and Writing 506
Topics for Discussion,Action,and Research 509
For Your Further Reading 510
Chapter 26 Teachers for Social Responsibility 512
Critical Pedagogy 513
Teaching As A Subversive Activity 513
Some Cautionary Observations 514
Hot Topics in the Language Classroom 515
Guidelines for Dealing With Controversial Issues in the Classroom 515
Examples of Socially Responsible Teaching from Around the World 516
Moral Dilemmas and Moral Imperatives 518
Agents for Change 520
Topics for Discussion,Action,and Research 520
For Your Further Reading 522
Bibliography 525
Name Index 554
Subject Index 558