Chemistry: the central science Ninth EditionPDF电子书下载

1 Introduction：Matter and Measurement 1

1.1 The Study of Chemistry 2

The Molecular Perspective of Chemistry 2

Why Study Chemistry？ 3

1.2 Classifications of Matter 5

States of Matter 5

Pure Substances 6

Elements 6

Compounds 7

Mixtures 8

1.3 Properties of Matter 9

Physical and Chemical Changes 10

Separation of Mixtures 11

1.4 Units of Measurement 13

SI Units 14

Length and Mass 14

Temperature 15

Derived SI Units 16

Volume 16

Density 17

1.5 Uncertainty in Measurement 20

Precision and Accuracy 21

Significant Figures 21

Significant Figures in Calculations 22

1.6 Dimensional Analysis 24

Using Two or More Conversion Factors 26

Conversions Involving Volume 26

Summary and Key Terms 28

Exercises 29

eMedia Exercises 33

Chemistry at Work Chemistry and the Chemical Industry 4

A Closer Look The Scientific Method 13

Chemistry at Work Chemistry in the News 18

Strategies in Chemistry Estimating Answers 25

Strategies in Chemistry The Importance of Practice 28

2 Atoms，Molecules，and Ions 34

2.1 The Atomic Theory of Matter 36

2.2 The Discovery of Atomic Structure 37

Cathode Rays and Electrons 37

Radioactivity 38

The Nuclear Atom 39

2.3 The Modern View of Atomic Structure 41

Isotopes，Atomic Numbers，and Mass Numbers 43

2.4 Atomic Weights 44

The Atomic Mass Scale 44

Average Atomic Masses 44

2.5 The Periodic Table 46

2.6 Molecules and Molecular Compounds 49

Molecules and Chemical Formulas 49

Molecular and Empirical Formulas 50

Picturing Molecules 51

2.7 Ions and Ionic Compounds 52

Predicting Ionic Charges 53

Ionic Compounds 54

2.8 Naming Inorganic Compounds 56

Names and Formulas of Ionic Compounds 57

Names and Formulas of Acids 61

Names and Formulas of Binary Molecular Compounds 62

2.9 Some Simple Organic Compounds 62

Alkanes 63

Some Derivatives of Alkanes 63

Summary and Key Terms 65

Exercises 66

eMedia Exercises 73

A Closer Look Basic Forces 42

A Closer Look The Mass Spectrometer 45

A Closer Look Glenn Seaborg and the Story of Seaborgium 49

Chemistry and Life Elements Required by Living Organisms 55

Strategies in Chemistry Pattern Recognition 56

3 Stoichiometry：Calculations with Chemical Formulas and Equations 74

3.1 Chemical Equations 76

3.2 Some Simple Patterns of Chemical Reactivity 80

Combination and Decomposition Reactions 80

Combustion in Air 82

3.3 Formula Weights 83

Formula and Molecular Weights 84

Percentage Composition from Formulas 84

3.4 The Mole 86

Molar Mass 87

Interconverting Masses，Moles，and Numbers of Particles 89

3.5 Empirical Formulas from Analyses 91

Molecular Formula from Empirical Formula 93

Combustion Analysis 94

3.6 Quantitative Information from Balanced Equations 95

3.7 Limiting Reactants 99

Theoretical Yields 102

Summary and Key Terms 103

Exercises 104

eMedia Exercises 111

Strategies in Chemistry Problem Solving 85

Chemistry at Work CO2 and the Greenhouse Effect 98

4 Aqueous Reactions and Solution Stoichiometry 112

4.1 General Properties of Aqueous Solutions 114

Electrolytic Properties 114

Ionic Compounds in Water 115

Molecular Compounds in Water 115

Strong and Weak Electrolytes 116

4.2 Precipitation Reactions 117

Solubility Guidelines for Ionic Compounds 118

Exchange（Metathesis） Reactions 119

Ionic Equations 120

4.3 Acid-Base Reactions 121

Acids 121

Bases 122

Strong and Weak Acids and Bases 122

Identifying Strong and Weak Electrolytes 123

Neutralization Reactions and Salts 124

Acid-Base Reactions with Gas Formation 126

4.4 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions 128

Oxidation and Reduction 128

Oxidation Numbers 128

Oxidation of Metals by Acids and Salts 130

The Activity Series 131

4.5 Concentrations of Solutions 134

Molarity 134

Expressing the Concentration of an Electrolyte 135

Interconverting Molarity，Moles，and Volume 136

Dilution 137

4.6 Solution Stoichiometry and Chemical Analysis 139

Titrations 140

Summary and Key Terms 144

Exercises 145

eMedia Exercises 151

Chemistry at Work Antacids 127

A Closer Look The Aura of Gold 133

Strategies in Chemistry Analyzing Chemical Reactions 134

5 Thermochemistry 152

5.1 The Nature of Energy 154

Kinetic Energy and Potential Energy 154

Units of Energy 155

System and Surroundings 155

Transferring Energy：Work and Heat 156

5.2 The First Law of Thermodynamics 158

Internal Energy 158

Relating △E to Heat and Work 159

Endothermic and Exothermic Processes 160

State Functions 161

5.3 Enthalpy 163

5.4 Enthalpies of Reaction 166

5.5 Calorimetry 169

Heat Capacity and Specific Heat 169

Constant-Pressure Calorimetry 170

Bomb Calorimetry（Constant-Volume Calorimetry） 171

5.6 Hess’s Law 174

5.7 Enthalpies of Formation 176

Using Enthalpies of Formation to Calculate Enthalpies of Reaction 178

5.8 Foods and Fuels 180

Foods 181

Fuels 183

Other Energy Sources 184

Summary and Key Terms 187

Exercises 188

eMedia Exercises 196

A Closer Look Energy，Enthalpy，and P-V Work 164

Strategies in Chemistry Using Enthalpy as a Guide 168

Chemistry and Life The Regulation of Human Body Temperature 173

Chemistry at Work The Hybrid Car 185

6 Electronic Structure of Atoms 198

6.1 The Wave Nature of Light 200

6.2 Quantized Energy and Photons 202

Hot Objects and the Quantization of Energy 202

The Photoelectric Effect and Photons 203

6.3 Line Spectra and the Bohr Model 205

Line Spectra 206

Bohr’s Model 207

The Energy States of the Hydrogen Atom 208

Limitations of the Bohr Model 209

6.4 The Wave Behavior of Matter 210

The Uncertainty Principle 211

6.5 Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Orbitals 212

Orbitals and Quantum Numbers 213

6.6 Representations of Orbitals 215

The s Orbitals 215

The p Orbitals 216

The d and f Orbitals 217

6.7 Many-Electron Atoms 218

Orbitals and Their Energies 218

Electron Spin and the Pauli Exclusion Principle 218

6.8 Electron Configurations 220

Hund’s Rule 221

Condensed Electron Configurations 223

Transition Metals 223

The Lanthanides and Actinides 224

6.9 Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table 225

Anomalous Electron Configurations 228

Summary and Key Terms 229

Exercises 230

eMedia Exercises 235

A Closer Look Measurement and the Uncertainty Principle 212

A Closer Look Experimental Evidence for Electron Spin 219

Chemistry and Life Nuclear Spin and Magnetic Resonance Imaging 220

7 Periodic Properties of the Elements 236

7.1 Development of the Periodic Table 238

7.2 Effective Nuclear Charge 239

7.3 Sizes of Atoms and Ions 241

Periodic Trends in Atomic Radii 243

Trends in the Sizes of Ions 243

7.4 Ionization Energy 246

Variations in Successive Ionization Energies 246

Periodic Trends in First Ionization Energies 247

Electron Configurations of Ions 249

7.5 Electron Affinities 250

7.6 Metals，Nonmetals，and Metalloids 252

Metals 253

Nonmetals 255

Metalloids 256

7.7 Group Trends for the Active Metals 256

Group 1A：The Alkali Metals 256

Group 2A：The Alkaline Earth Metals 260

7.8 Group Trends for Selected Nonmetals 261

Hydrogen 261

Group 6A：The Oxygen Group 261

Group 7A：The Halogens 262

Group 8A：The Noble Gases 263

Summary and Key Terms 265

Exercises 266

eMedia Exercises 272

Chemistry and Life Ionic Size Makes a BIG Difference！ 245

Chemistry and Life The Improbable Development of Lithium Drugs 259

8 Basic Concepts of Chemical Bonding 274

8.1 Chemical Bonds，Lewis Symbols，and the Octet Rule 276

Lewis Symbols 276

The Octet Rule 276

8.2 Ionic Bonding 277

Energetics of Ionic Bond Formation 278

Electron Configurations of Ions of the Representative Elements 280

Transition-Metal Ions 281

Polyatomic Ions 282

8.3 Covalent Bonding 282

Lewis Structures 283

Multiple Bonds 284

8.4 Bond Polarity and Electronegativity 285

Electronegativity 285

Electronegativity and Bond Polarity 286

Dipole Moments 287

Bond Types and Nomenclature 290

8.5 Drawing Lewis Structures 290

Formal Charge 292

8.6 Resonance Structures 295

Resonance in Benzene 297

8.7 Exceptions to the Octet Rule 298

Odd Number of Electrons 298

Less than an Octet 298

More than an Octet 299

8.8 Strengths of Covalent Bonds 300

Bond Enthalpies and the Enthalpies of Reactions 302

Bond Enthalpy and Bond Length 305

Summary and Key Terms 306

Exercises 307

eMedia Exercises 313

A Closer Look Calculation of Lattice Energies：The Born-Haber Cycle 280

A Closer Look Oxidation Numbers，Formal Charges，and Actual Partial Charges 294

Chemistry at Work Explosives and Alfred Nobel 304

9 Molecular Geometry and Bonding Theories 314

9.1 Molecular Shapes 316

9.2 The VSEPR Model 318

The Effect of Nonbonding Electrons and Multiple Bonds on Bond Angles 323

Molecules with Expanded Valence Shells 323

Shapes of Larger Molecules 326

9.3 Molecular Shape and Molecular Polarity 328

9.4 Covalent Bonding and Orbital Overlap 330

9.5 Hybrid Orbitals 331

sp Hybrid Orbitals 332

sp2 and spa Hybrid Orbitals 333

Hybridization Involving d Orbitals 334

Summary 336

9.6 Multiple Bonds 338

Delocalized π Bonding 340

General Conclusions 343

9.7 Molecular Orbitals 343

The Hydrogen Molecule 343

Bond Order 345

9.8 Second-Row Diatomic Molecules 346

Molecular Orbitals for Li2 and Be2 346

Molecular Orbitals from 2p Atomic Orbitals 347

Electron Configurations for B2 Through Ne2 348

Electron Configurations and Molecular Properties 350

Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules 352

Summary and Key Terms 355

Exercises 356

eMedia Exercises 363

Chemistry and Life The Chemistry of Vision 342

Chemistry at Work Organic Dyes 353

10 Gases 364

10.1 Characteristics of Gases 366

10.2 Pressure 367

Atmospheric Pressure and the Barometer 367

10.3 The Gas Laws 370

The Pressure-Volume Relationship：Boyle’s Law 371

The Temperature-Volume Relationship：Charles’s Law 372

The Quantity-Volume Relationship：Avogadro’s Law 373

10.4 The Ideal-Gas Equation 375

Relating the Ideal-Gas Equation and the Gas Laws 377

10.5 Further Applications of the Ideal-Gas Equation 379

Gas Densities and Molar Mass 379

Volumes of Gases in Chemical Reactions 381

10.6 Gas Mixtures and Partial Pressures 383

Partial Pressures and Mole Fractions 384

Collecting Gases over Water 385

10.7 Kinetic-Molecular Theory 386

Application to the Gas Laws 388

10.8 Molecular Effusion and Diffusion 389

Graham’s Law of Effusion 390

Diffusion and Mean Free Path 392

10.9 Real Gases：Deviations from Ideal Behavior 393

The van der Waals Equation 394

Summary and Key Terms 397 Exercises 398

eMedia Exercises 405

Chemistry and Life Blood Pressure 370

Strategies in Chemistry Calculations Involving Many Variables 377

Chemistry at Work Gas Pipelines 382

A Closer Look The Ideal-Gas Equation 389

Chemistry at Work Gas Separations 392

11 Intermolecular Forces，Liquids，and Solids 406

11.1 A Molecular Comparison of Liquids and Solids 408

11.2 Intermolecular Forces 409

Ion-Dipole Forces 410

Dipole-Dipole Forces 410

London Dispersion Forces 411

Hydrogen Bonding 413

Comparing Intermolecular Forces 416

11.3 Some Properties of Liquids 418

Viscosity 418

Surface Tension 418

11.4 Phase Changes 419

Energy Changes Accompanying Phase Changes 420

Heating Curves 421

Critical Temperature and Pressure 423

11.5 Vapor Pressure 425

Explaining Vapor Pressure on the Molecular Level 425

Volatility，Vapor Pressure，and Temperature 426

Vapor Pressure and Boiling Point 426

11.6 Phase Diagrams 427

The Phase Diagrams of H2O and CO2 429

11.7 Structures of Solids 430

Unit Cells 430

The Crystal Structure of Sodium Chloride 432

Close Packing of Spheres 434

11.8 Bonding in Solids 435

Molecular Solids 437

Covalent-Network Solids 437

Ionic Solids 438

Metallic Solids 440

Summary and Key Terms 441

Exercises 442

eMedia Exercises 449

A Closer Look Trends in Hydrogen Bonding 416

Chemistry at Work Supercritical Fluid Extraction 424

A Closer Look The Clausius-Clapeyron Equation 427

A Closer Look X-Ray Diffraction by Crystals 436

A Closer Look Buckyball 439

12 Modern Materials 450

12.1 Liquid Crystals 452

Types of Liquid Crystalline Phases 452

12.2 Polymers 456

Addition Polymerization 456

Condensation Polymerization 457

Types of Polymers 458

Structures and Physical Properties of Polymers 459

Cross-linking Polymers 460

12.3 Biomaterials 463

Characteristics of Biomaterials 464

Polymeric Biomaterials 464

Examples of Biomaterial Applications 465

12.4 Ceramics 467

Processing of Ceramics 468

Ceramic Composites 469

Applications of Ceramics 470

12.5 Superconductivity 470

Superconducting Ceramic Oxides 471

New Superconductors 472

12.6 Thin Films 473

Uses of Thin Films 474

Formation of Thin Films 474

Summary and Key Terms 476

Exercises 477

eMedia Exercises 483

Chemistry at Work Liquid Crystal Displays 455

Chemistry at Work Recycling Plastics 458

Chemistry at Work Toward the Plastic Car 462

Chemistry at Work Cell Phone Tower Range 473

Chemistry at Work Diamond Coatings 476

13 Properties of Solutions 484

13.1 The Solution Process 486

Energy Changes and Solution Formation 487

Solution Formation，Spontaneity，and Disorder 489

Solution Formation and Chemical Reactions 490

13.2 Saturated Solutions and Solubility 491

13.3 Factors Affecting Solubility 492

Solute-Solvent Interactions 492

Pressure Effects 495

Temperature Effects 497

13.4 Ways of Expressing Concentration 497

Mass Percentage，ppm，and ppb 498

Mole Fraction，Molarity，and Molality 499

Conversion of Concentration Units 500

13.5 Colligative Properties 502

Lowering the Vapor Pressure 502

Boiling-Point Elevation 504

Freezing-Point Depression 506

Osmosis 507

Determination of Molar Mass 509

13.6 Colloids 511

Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Colloids 513

Removal of Colloidal Particles 514

Summary and Key Terms 517

Exercises 518

eMedia Exercises 523

A Closer Look Hydrates 490

Chemistry and Life Fat- and Water-Soluble Vitamins 494

Chemistry and Life Blood Gases and Deep-Sea Diving 496

A Closer Look Ideal Solutions with Two or More Volatile Components 503

A Closer Look Colligative Properties of Electrolyte Solutions 511

Chemistry and Life Sickle-Cell Anemia 515

14 Chemical Kinetics 524

14.1 Factors that Affect Reaction Rates 526

14.2 Reaction Rates 527

Change of Rate with Time 528

Reaction Rates and Stoichiometry 530

14.3 Concentration and Rate 532

Exponents in the Rate Law 533

Units of Rate Constants 535

Using Initial Rates to Determine Rate Laws 535

14.4 The Change of Concentration with Time 537

First-Order Reactions 537

Second-Order Reactions 539

Half-Life 541

14.5 Temperature and Rate 543

The Collision Model 543

The Orientation Factor 544

Activation Energy 544

The Arrhenius Equation 546

Determining the Activation Energy 547

14.6 Reaction Mechanisms 549

Elementary Steps 549

Multistep Mechanisms 549

Rate Laws for Elementary Steps 551

Rate Laws for Multistep Mechanisms 552

Mechanisms with an Initial Fast Step 553

14.7 Catalysis 555

Homogeneous Catalysis 556

Heterogeneous Catalysis 557

Enzymes 559

Summary and Key Terms 563

Exercises 564

eMedia Exercises 573

A Closer Look Using Spectroscopic Methods to Measure Reaction Rates 532

Chemistry at Work Methyl Bromide in the Atmosphere 542

Chemistry at Work Catalytic Converters 559

Chemistry and Life Nitrogen Fixation and Nitrogenase 561

15 Chemical Equilibrium 574

15.1 The Concept of Equilibrium 577

15.2 The Equilibrium Constant 578

The Magnitude of Equilibrium Constants 582

The Direction of the Chemical Equation and Keq 583

Other Ways to Manipulate Chemical Equations and Keq Values 584

Units of Equilibrium Constants 586

15.3 Heterogeneous Equilibria 586

15.4 Calculating Equilibrium Constants 588

15.5 Applications of Equilibrium Constants 590

Predicting the Direction of Reaction 591

Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations 592

15.6 Le Chatelier’s Principle 594

Change in Reactant or Product Concentrations 594

Effects of Volume and Pressure Changes 596

Effect of Temperature Changes 598

The Effect of Catalysts 601

Summary and Key Terms 604

Exercises 604

eMedia Exercises 611

Chemistry at Work The Haber Process 579

Chemistry at Work Controlling Nitric Oxide Emissions 603

16 Acid-Base Equilibria 612

16.1 Acids and Bases：A Brief Review 614

16.2 Bronsted-Lowry Acids and Bases 614

The H＋ Ion in Water 614

Proton-Transfer Reactions 615

Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs 616

Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases 618

16.3 The Autoionization of Water 620

The Ion Product of Water 620

16.4 The pH Scale 621

Other “p” Scales 624

Measuring pH 624

16.5 Strong Acids and Bases 625

Strong Acids 625

Strong Bases 626

16.6 Weak Acids 627

Calculating Ka from pH 629

Using Ka to Calculate pH 630

Polyprotic Acids 634

16.7 Weak Bases 636

Types of Weak Bases 637

16.8 Relationship Between Ka and Kb 639

16.9 Acid-Base Properties of Salt Solutions 641

An Anion’s Ability to React with Water 641

A Cation’s Ability to React with Water 642

Combined Effect of Cation and Anion in Solution 642

16.10 Acid-Base Behavior and Chemical Structure 644

Factors that Affect Acid Strength 644

Binary Acids 645

Oxyacids 645

Carboxylic Acids 647

16.11 Lewis Acids and Bases 648

Hydrolysis of Metal Ions 650

Summary and Key Terms 652

Exercises 653

eMedia Exercises 659

Chemistry at Work Amines and Amine Hydrochlorides 640

Chemistry and Life The Amphoteric Behavior of Amino Acids 649

17 Additional Aspects of Aqueous Equilibria 660

17.1 The Common-Ion Effect 662

17.2 Buffered Solutions 664

Composition and Action of Buffered Solutions 664

Buffer Capacityand pH 666

Addition of Strong Acids or Bases to Buffers 668

17.3 Acid-Base Titrations 671

Strong Acid-Strong Base Titrations 671

Weak Acid-Strong Base Titrations 673

Titrations of Polyprotic Acids 677

17.4 Solubility Equilibria 678

The Solubility-Product Constant，Ksp 678

Solubility and Ksp 679

17.5 Factors That Affect Solubility 681

Common-Ion Effect 681

Solubility and pH 683

Formation of Complex Ions 686

Amphoterism 689

17.6 Precipitation and Separation of Ions 690

Selective Precipitation of Ions 691

17.7 Qualitative Analysis for Metallic Elements 692

Summary and Key Terms 696

Exercises 697

eMedia Exercises 701

Chemistry and Life Blood as a Buffered Solution 669

A Closer Look Limitations of Solubility Products 682

Chemistry and Life Sinkholes 684

Chemistry and Life Tooth Decay and Fluoridation 688

18 Chemistry of the Environment 702

18.1 Earth’s Atmosphere 704

Composition of the Atmosphere 705

18.2 Outer Regions of the Atmosphere 706

Photodissociation 706

Photoionization 707

18.3 Ozone in the Upper Atmosphere 708

Depletion of the Ozone Layer 710

18.4 Chemistry of the Troposphere 711

Sulfur Compounds and Acid Rain 712

Carbon Monoxide 713

Nitrogen Oxides and Photochemical Smog 715

Water Vapor，Carbon Dioxide，and Climate 716

18.5 The World Ocean 718

Seawater 718

Desalination 719

18.6 Freshwater 720

Dissolved Oxygen and Water Quality 721

Treatment of Municipal Water Supplies 722

18.7 Green Chemistry 723

Solvents and Reagents 724

Other Processes 725

Water Purification 726

Summary and Key Terms 728

Exercises 729

eMedia Exercises 733

A Closer Look Methane as a Greenhouse Gas 717

A Closer Look Water Softening 723

19 Chemical Thermodynamics 734

19.1 Spontaneous Processes 736

Reversible and Irreversible Processes 737

19.2 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics 740

The Spontaneous Expansion of a Gas 740

Entropy 742

Relating Entropy to Heat Transfer and Temperature 744

The Second Law of Thermodynamics 745

19.3 The Molecular Interpretation of Entropy 748

19.4 Entropy Changes in Chemical Reactions 753

Entropy Changes in the Surroundings 754

19.5 Gibbs Free Energy 755

Standard Free-Energy Changes 756

19.6 Free Energy and Temperature 759

19.7 Free Energy and the Equilibrium Constant 761

Summary and Key Terms 767

Exercises 768

eMedia Exercises 775

A Closer Look Reversibility and Work 738

A Closer Look The Entropy Change of Expansion 745

Chemistry and Life Entropy and Life 747

A Closer Look Entropy，Disorder，and Ludwig Boltzmann 750

A Closer Look What’s “Free” About Free Energy？ 757

Chemistry and Life Driving Nonspontaneous Reactions 765

20 Electrochemistry 776

20.1 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions 778

20.2 Balancing Oxidation-Reduction Equations 779

Half-Reactions 780

Balancing Equations by the Method of Half-Reactions 780

Balancing Equations for Reactions Occurring in Basic Solution 783

20.3 Voltaic Cells 784

A Molecular View of Electrode Processes 787

20.4 Cell EMF 788

Standard Reduction（Half-Cell） Potentials 789

Oxidizing and Reducing Agents 794

20.5 Spontaneity of Redox Reactions 796

EMF and Free-Energy Change 797

20.6 Effect of Concentration on Cell EMF 798

The Nernst Equation 799

Concentration Cells 801

Cell EMF and Chemical Equilibrium 803

20.7 Batteries 805

Lead-Acid Battery 806

Alkaline Battery 807

Nickel-Cadmium，Nickel-Metal-Hydride，and Lithium-Ion Batteries 807

Fuel Cells 808

20.8 Corrosion 809

Corrosion of Iron 809

Preventing the Corrosion of Iron 810

20.9 Electrolysis 812

Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions 813

Electrolysis with Active Electrodes 815

Quantitative Aspects of Electrolysis 816

Electrical Work 817

Summary and Key Terms 820

Exercises 821

eMedia Exercises 829

Chemistry and Life Heartbeats and Electrocardiography 804

21 Nuclear Chemistry 830

21.1 Radioactivity 832

Nuclear Equations 832

Types of Radioactive Decay 833

21.2 Patterns of Nuclear Stability 835

Neutron-to-Proton Ratio 835

Radioactive Series 837

Further Observations 837

21.3 Nuclear Transmutations 838

Using Charged Particles 839

Using Neutrons 839

Transuranium Elements 839

21.4 Rates of Radioactive Decay 840

Dating 841

Calculations Based on Half-life 842

21.5 Detection of Radioactivity 844

Radiotracers 845

21.6 Energy Changes in Nuclear Reactions 846

Nuclear Binding Energies 847

21.7 Nuclear Fission 850

Nuclear Reactors 851

21.8 Nuclear Fusion 854

21.9 Biological Effects of Radiation 855

Radiation Doses 856

Radon 856

Summary and Key Terms 859

Exercises 860

eMedia Exercises 865

Chemistry and Life Medical Applications of Radiotracers 848

A Closer Look The Dawning of the Nuclear Age 852

Chemistry and Life Radiation Therapy 857

22 Chemistry of the Nonmetals 866

22.1 General Concepts：Periodic Trends and Chemical Reactions 868

Chemical Reactions 869

22.2 Hydrogen 871

Isotopes of Hydrogen 871

Properties of Hydrogen 872

Preparation of Hydrogen 872

Uses of Hydrogen 873

Binary Hydrogen Compounds 873

22.3 Group 8A：The Noble Gases 875

Noble-Gas Compounds 875

22.4 Group 7A：The Halogens 876

Properties and Preparation of the Halogens 877

Uses of the Halogens 878

The Hydrogen Halides 879

Interhalogen Compounds 880

Oxyacids and Oxyanions 880

22.5 Oxygen 881

Properties of Oxygen 881

Preparation of Oxygen 882

Uses of Oxygen 882

Ozone 882

Oxides 884

Peroxides and Superoxides 885

22.6 The Other Group 6A Elements：S，Se，Te，and Po 886

General Characteristics of the Group 6A Elements 886

Occurrences and Preparation of S，Se，and Te 887

Properties and Uses of Sulfur，Selenium，and Tellurium 887

Sulfides 888

Oxides，Oxyacids，and Oxyanions of Sulfur 889

22.7 Nitrogen 890

Properties of Nitrogen 890

Preparation and Uses of Nitrogen 891

Hydrogen Compounds of Nitrogen 892

Oxides and Oxyacids of Nitrogen 893

22.8 The Other Group 5A Elements：P，As，Sb，and Bi 895

General Characteristics of the Group 5A Elements 895

Occurrence，Isolation，and Properties of Phosphorus 896

Phosphorus Halides 896

Oxy Compounds of Phosphorus 897

22.9 Carbon 900

Elemental Forms of Carbon 900

Oxides of Carbon 901

Carbonic Acid and Carbonates 903

Carbides 904

Other Inorganic Compounds of Carbon 905

22.10 The Other Group 4A Elements：Si，Ge，Sn，and Pb 905

General Characteristics of the Group 4A Elements 905

Occurrence and Preparation of Silicon 906

Silicates 906

Glass 908

Silicones 909

22.11 Boron 909

Summary and Key Terms 911

Exercises 913

eMedia Exercises 917

Chemistry and Life Nitrites in Food 894

Chemistry and Life Arsenic in Drinking Water 900

Chemistry at Work Carbon Fibers and Composites 902

23 Metals and Metallurgy 918

23.1 Occurrence and Distribution of Metals 920

Minerals 920

Metallurgy 921

23.2 Pyrometallurgy 922

The Pyrometallurgy of Iron 923

Formation of Steel 924

23.3 Hydrometallurgy 925

The Hydrometallurgy of Aluminum 925

23.4 Electrometallurgy 926

Electrometallurgy of Sodium 926

Electrometallurgy of Aluminum 927

Electrorefining of Copper 928

23.5 Metallic Bonding 930

Physical Properties of Metals 930

Electron-Sea Model for Metallic Bonding 930

Molecular-Orbital Model for Metals 931

23.6 Alloys 933

Intermetallic Compounds 935

23.7 Transition Metals 936

Physical Properties 936

Electron Configurations and Oxidation States 937

Magnetism 939

23.8 Chemistry of Selected Transition Metals 940

Chromium 940

Iron 940

Copper 941

Summary and Key Terms 943

Exercises 944

eMedia Exercises 947

A Closer Look Charles M.Hall 928

A Closer Look Insulators and Semiconductors 932

A Closer Look Shape Memory Alloys 935

24 Chemistry of Coordination Compounds 948

24.1 Metal Complexes 950

The Development of Coordination Chemistry：Werner’s Theory 950

The Metal-Ligand Bond 952

Charges，Coordination Numbers，and Geometries 952

24.2 Ligands with More than One Donor Atom 954

Metals and Chelates in Living Systems 956

24.3 Nomenclature of Coordination Chemistry 960

24.4 Isomerism 961

Structural Isomerism 962

Stereoisomerism 962

24.5 Color and Magnetism 966

Color 966

Magnetism 968

24.6 Crystal-Field Theory 968

Electron Configurations in Octahedral Complexes 971

Tetrahedral and Square-Planar Complexes 972

Summary and Key Terms 975

Exercises 976

eMedia Exercises 981

A Closer Look Entropy and the Chelate Effect 956

Chemistry and Life The Battle for Iron in Living Systems 959

A Closer Look Charge-Transfer Color 974

25 The Chemistry of Life：Organic and Biological Chemistry 982

25.1 Some General Characteristics of Organic Molecules 984

The Structures of Organic Molecules 984

The Stabilities of Organic Substances 984

Solubility and Acid-Base Properties of Organic Substances 985

25.2 Introduction to Hydrocarbons 986

25.3 Alkanes 987

Structures of Alkanes 988

Structural Isomers 988

Nomenclature of Alkanes 989

Cycloalkanes 992

Reactions of Alkanes 994

25.4 Unsaturated Hydrocarbons 994

Alkenes 994

Alkynes 996

Addition Reactions of Alkenes and Alkynes 997

Mechanism of Addition Reactions 998

Aromatic Hydrocarbons 1000

25.5 Functional Groups：Alcohols and Ethers 1001

Alcohols（R—OH） 1003

Ethers（R—O—R′） 1004

25.6 Compounds with a Carbonyl Group 1004

Aldehydes（R—O==C—H） and Ketones（R—O==C—R′） 1005

Carboxylic Acids（R—O==C—OH） 1005

Esters（R—O==C—O—R′） 1007

Amines and Amides 1009

25.7 Chirality in Organic Chemistry 1009

25.8 Introduction to Biochemistry 1011

25.9 Proteins 1012

Amino Acids 1012

Polypeptides and Proteins 1013

Protein Structure 1015

25.10 Carbohydrates 1017

Disaccharides 1018

Polysaccharides 1019

25.11 Nucleic Acids 1020

Summary and Key Terms 1025

Exercises 1026

eMedia Exercises 1033

Chemistry at Work Gasoline 992

Chemistry at Work The Accidental Discovery of TeflonTM 998

A Closer Look Aromatic Stabilization 1001

Chemistry and Life The Origins of Chirality in Living Systems 1016

Strategies in Chemistry What Now？ 1025

Appendices 1034

A Mathematical Operations 1034

B Properties of Water 1040

C Thermodynamic Quantities for Selected Substances at 298.15 K（25℃） 1041

D Aqueous-Equilibrium Constants 1044

E Standard Reduction Potentials at 25℃ 1046

Answers to Selected Exercises 1047

Glossary 1079

Photo/Art Credits 1091

Index 1093