文化之重：价值、行为、体制和组织的跨国比较 第2版PDF电子书下载

1．Values and Culture 1

Summary of This Chapter 1

Definitions and Distinctions 1

Mental Programs 1

Describing Mental Programs in Measurable Terms 4

Values 5

Measuring Values 7

Culture 9

National Cultures and Their Stability 11

National Character and National Stereotypes 13

Cultural Relativism 15

Studying Culture 15

Comparing Cultures:Changing the Level of Analysis 15

Avoiding Ethnocentrism 17

The Need for a Multidisciplinary Approach 19

Language and Translation 21

Matching Samples:Functional Equivalence 23

Modal and Marginal Phenomena 24

Dimensions of Culture 24

The Specific and the General 24

Searching for Dimensions of Culture 26

Dimensions Versus Typologies 28

Five Basic Problems of National Societies 28

Other Dimensions of Culture in the Literature:Theory Based 29

Other Dimensions of Culture in the Literature:Empirical 31

Culture Change 34

The Process of Culture Change 34

Culture Change and the IBM Data 34

Notes 36

2．Data Collection,Treatment,and Validation 41

Summary of This Chapter 41

The Research Settings 41

The IBM Corporation 41

The Use of Attitude Surveysin IBM 43

Questionnaire Translation and Survey Administration 46

The IBM Survey Database 48

A Second Research Setting:IMEDE Business School 49

Data Treatment 49

Frequency Distributions and Central Tendency Within Groups 49

ANOVA:Country,Occupation,Gender,and Age 50

Comparing 40 Countries:Matching Occupations 51

Extension to 50 Countries Plus Three Regions 52

Selecting Stable Questions 52

Eclectic Analysis:Power Distance and Uncertainty Avoidance 53

Wark Goal Importance Data:Eliminating Acquiescence 56

Work Goal Importance:Ecological Factor Analysis 58

Putting the Four Dimensions Together 58

Value Shifts in IBM Between 1967-69 and 1971-73 60

Correlations Between Index Scores 60

Country Clusters 62

Multilingual Countries:Belgium,Switzerland,and Yugoslavia 63

Validation 65

The Reliability of Country Dimension Scores 65

Replicating the IBM Research 66

Comparing With Data From Other Sources 67

Economic,Geographic,and Demographic Indicators 68

Adding a Fifth Dimension 69

Studying Organizational Cultures 71

Support and Criticisms of the Approach Followed 73

Notes 73

3．Power Distance 79

Summary of This Chapter 79

Inequality and Power Distance 79

On Animal and Human Inequality 79

Inequality in Society 80

Inequality in Organizations 82

The Concept of Power Distance 83

Power Distance and Human Inequality 84

Measuring National Differences in Power Distance in IBM 84

Organization of Chapters 3 Through 7 84

A Power Distance Index for IBM Countries 85

Power Distance Index Scores by Occupation 88

Gender Differences in Power Distance 90

Country Power Distance Index Scores and Other IBM Survey Questions 90

Validating PDI Against Data From Other Sources 91

Straight Replications of the IBM Survey 91

PDI Versus Studies of General Values in Society 92

Summary of General Connotations of the Power Distance Index Found in Survey Material 96

Origins and Implications of Country Power Distance Differences 97

The Power Distance Societal Norm 97

Power Distance in the Family 98

Power Distance,Schools,and Educational Systems 100

Power Distance in Work and Organization 102

Power Distance,Worker Participation,and"Industrial Democracy" 106

Power Distance and Political Systems 110

Power Distance and Religion,Ideology,and Theories of Power 113

Power Distance and Aviation Safety 115

Predictors of PDI:Latitude,Population Size,and Wealth 115

Power Distance and Historical Factors:D'Iribarne's Contribution 117

Power Distance and Historical Factors:The Roman Empire and Colonialism 119

The Future of Power Distance Differences 121

Statistical Analysis of Data Used in This Chapter 123

Calculating the Power Distance Index by Country 123

Power Distance Index Scores by Occupation 125

Straight Replications of the IBM Survey 126

Results of Other Survey Studies Significantly Correlated With PDI 126

Indexes at the National Level Significantly Correlated With PDI 128

PDI Versus Eight Geographic,Economic,and Demographic Indicators 132

Trends in PDI 135

Notes 137

4．Uncertainty Avoidance 145

Summary of This Chapter 145

The Concept of Uncertainty Avoidance 145

Time,Future,Uncertainty,and Anxiety 145

Uncertainty Avoidance in Organizations 146

Uncertainty Avoidance Is Not the Same as Risk Avoidance 148

Measuring National Differences in Uncertainty Avoidance in IBM 148

An Uncertainty Avoidance Indexfor IBM Countries 148

Uncertainty Avoidance Versus Power Distance 150

Occupation and Gender Differences in the Scores on the Uncertainty Avoidance Items 151

Country UAI Scores and Other IBM Survey Questions 153

Validating UAI Against Data From Other Sources 154

Straight Replications of the IBM Survey 154

UAI,Anxiety,and Emotions:Studies by Lynn and Others 155

UAI and Subjective Well-Being 157

UAI Versus Studies of General Values in Society 158

Summary of General Connotations of the Uncertainty Avoidance Index Found in Survey Material 159

Origins and Implications of Country Uncertainty Avoidance Differences 159

The Uncertainty Avoidance Societal Norm 159

Uncertainty Avoidance in the Family 161

Uncertainty Avoidance,Schools,and Educational Systems 162

UAI and Achievement Motivation:McClelland's Data 163

Uncertainty Avoidance in the Work Situation 165

Uncertainty Avoidance and Consumer Behavior 170

Uncertainty Avoidance and Political Systems 171

Uncertainty Avoidance and Legislation 174

Uncertainty Avoidance,Nationalism,and Xenophobia 175

Uncertainty Avoidance and Religions 176

Uncertainty Avoidance,Theories,and Games 177

Predictors of UAI 179

Uncertainty Avoidance and Historical Factors 179

The Future of Uncertainty Avoidance Differences 181

Statistical Analysis of Data Used in This Chapter 183

Calculating the Uncertainty Avoidance Index by Country 183

Calculating Differences in Item Scores by Occupation 183

Country UAI,Average Age of Respondents,and Other IBM Survey Questions 184

Straight Replications of the IBM Survey 186

Studies of Stress and Well-Being 188

McClelland's Study of Motivation 190

Results of Other Surveys Correlated With UAI 190

Indexes at the National Level Correlated With UAI 197

UAI Versus Eight Geographic,Economic,and Demographic Indicators 198

Trends in UAI 198

Notes 199

5．Individualism and Collectivism 209

Summary of This Chapter 209

The Individual and the Collectivity 209

Individualism in Society 209

Individualism in Organizations and Organization Theories 212

Measuring National Differences in Individualism in IBM 214

An Individualism Index for Countries in the IBM Sample 214

Societal Versus Individual Individualism and Collectivism,and Whether Ind and Col Are One or Two Dimensions 215

Individualism Versus Power Distance and Uncertainty Avoidance 216

Individualism and Occupation,Gender,and Age 218

Country Individualism Index Scores and Other IBM Survey Questions 218

Validating IDV Against Data From Other Sources 219

Distinguishing IDV From PDI and GNP/Capita 219

Straight Replications of the IBM Survey 219

IDV Versus Schwartz's Values Surveys of Teachers and Students 220

IDV Versus Smith and Dugan's Analysis of Trompenaars's Data 221

IDV Versus Inglehart's Analysis of the World Values Survey 223

IDV Scores and Other Studies of General Values 224

Summary of Value Connotations of the Individualism Index Found in Surveys and Related Material 225

Origins and Implications of Country Individualism Differences 225

The Individualism Societal Norm 225

Individualism and Collectivism in the Family 225

Individualism and Collectivism Versus Personality and Behavior 231

Individualism and Collectivism in Language Use and Group Identity 233

Individualism and Collectivism,Schools,and Educational Systems 234

Individualism and Collectivism in the Work Situation 235

Collectivism and the Applicability of Management Methods 240

Individualism and Consumer Behavior 241

Health and Disability in Individualist and Collectivist Societies 242

Individualism or Collectivism,Political Systems,and Legislation 243

Individualism and Collectivism,Religions,and Ideas 249

Predictors of IDV:Wealth and Latitude 250

Individualism and Historical Factors 253

The Future of Individualism Differences 254

Statistical Analysis of Data Used in This Chapter 255

Calculating the Individualism Index by Country 255

Work Goal Dimensions by Occupation 257

Country IDV Scores and Other IBM Survey Questions 258

Earlier Studies of Work Goals in IBM 258

Straight Replications of the IBM Survey 260

Results of Other Surveys Correlated With IDV 264

Indexes at the National Level Correlated With IDV 268

IDV Versus Eight Geographic,Economic,and Demographic Indicators 269

Trends in IDV 272

Notes 273

6．Masculinity and Femininity 279

Summary of This Chapter 279

Sexes,Genders,and Gender Roles 279

Absolute,Statistical,and Social Sex Differences 279

Gender Differences in Work Goals 281

Measuring National Differences in Masculinity in IBM 284

A Masculinity Index for Countries in the IBM Sample 284

Masculinity and Occupation,Gender,and Age 285

Country MAS Scores and Other IBM Survey Questions 290

MAS and Work Centrality in IBM 291

Societal Versus Individual Masculinity and Femininity,and Whether Mas and Fem Are One or Two Dimensions 292

Masculinity Versus Individualism 293

Validating MAS Against Data From Other Sources 294

The Need to Control for Wealth Differences 294

Straight Replications of the IBM Survey 295

MAS Scores Versus Other Values Surveys 296

Summary of Connotations of the Masculinity Index Found in Surveys and Related Material 297

Origins and Implications of Country Masculinity Differences 297

The Masculinity Societal Norm 297

Masculinity and Femininity in the Family 298

Masculinity,Schools,and Educational Systems 303

Masculinity and Femininity in Gender Roles 305

Masculinity and Consumer Behavior 310

Masculinity and Femininity in the Workplace 311

Masculinity,Femininity,and Political Priorities 317

Masculinity,Femininity,and Political Mores 321

Masculinity and Sexual Behavior 322

Masculinity,Femininity,and Religion 327

Masculinity and Geographic,Economic,and Demographic Factors 331

Masculinity and(Pre)Historical Factors 331

The Future of Masculinity/Femininity Differences 333

Statistical Analysis of Data Used in This Chapter 335

Computing MAS for Old and New Cases 335

Country MAS Scores and Other IBM Survey Questions 335

Straight Replications of the IBM Survey 335

Results of Other Studies Correlated With MAS 337

MAS Versus Eight Geographic,Economic,and Demographic Indicators 339

Trends in MAS 340

Notes 341

7．Long-Versus Short-Term Orientation 351

Summary of This Chapter 351

East Versus West 351

Cultural Biases in the Researchers'Minds 351

The Chinese Value Survey 352

Long-Term Orientation as a Fifth Dimension 353

Measuring and Validating National Differences in Long-Term Orientation 355

A Long-Term Orientation Indexfor 23 Countries 355

Replications of the Measurement of Long-Term Orientation 355

Validating LTO Against Other Studies of Values 355

LTO and Savings Rates:Read's Study 358

Summary of Validations and Connotations of the Long-Term Orientation Index Found in Surveys and Related Material 359

Implications of Country Long-Term Orientation Differences 359

LTO and Family,Social Relationships,and Work 359

LTO and Ways of Thinking 362

LTO and Economic Growth 365

Long-and Short-Term Orientation in the Hindu and Muslim Worlds 368

African Values:A New Dimension? 369

The Future of Long-Term Orientation 370

Notes 370

8．Cultures in Organizations 373

Summary of This Chapter 373

Organizations and National Cultures 373

There Are No Universal Solutions to Organization and Management Problems 373

The Functioning of Organizations 375

Culture and Organization Theories:Nationality Constrains Rationality 378

Planning,Control,and Accounting 381

Corporate Governance 384

Motivation and Compensation 385

Leadership and Empowerment 388

Management Development and Organization Development 390

Performance Appraisal and Management by Objectives 391

Organizational Cultures 391

The"Organizational Culture"Construct 391

Differences Between Organizational and National Cultures 393

The IRIC Organizational Culture Research Project 395

Dimensions of Organizational Cultures 397

Validating the Practice Dimensions 400

Organizational Subcultures 405

The Usefulness of the Organizational Culture Construct 408

How Universal Are the Six Organizational Culture Diniensions? 410

Individual Perceptions of Organizational Cultures 411

Implications of the Level of Analysis:Gardens,Bouquets,and Flowers 413

Occupational Cultures 414

Notes 415

9．Intercultural Encounters 423

Summary of This Chapter 423

Intercultural Communication and Cooperation 423

General Principles 423

Language and Discourse 425

Culture Shock and Expatriate Failure 425

Training in Intercultural Competence 427

Political Issues 429

Minorities,Migrants,and Refugees 429

International Politics and International Organizations 431

Intercultural Negotiations 435

Economic Development,Nondevelopment,and Development Cooperation 437

Multinational Business 440

The Functioning of Multinational Business Organizations 440

International Acquisitions,Mergers,and Joint Ventures 445

International Marketing,Advertising,and Consumer Behavior 448

Schools,Tourism,and a Look Ahead 451

Intercultural Encounters in Schools 451

Intercultural Encounters in Tourism 452

The Influence of New Technology 453

Cultural Relativism,Convergence,and Divergence 453

Notes 454

10．Using Culture Dimension Scores in Theory and Research 461

Summary of This Chapter 461

Applications of the Dimensional Model 461

The Fortunes of Continued Research in Six Areas 461

Fields of Application 462

Replications and Their Pitfalls 463

Extensions to New Countries 464

Using the Dimensional Model as a Paradigm 465

Closing Remarks 466

Notes 466

AppendixesAppendix 1 467

Questions From the IBM Attitude Survey Questionnaire Referred to in This BookAppendix 2 475

Country Scores on A,B,and C Questions(except A5-A32 and C1-C8)Appendix 3 483

Standardized Country and Occupation Scores for Work Goals(questions A5-18 and C1-C8)Appendix 4 491

Replicating the IBM-Style Cross-National SurveyAppendix 5 499

Summary of Country Index Scores(including additions)Appendix 6 503

Summary of Significant Correlations of Country Index Scores With Data From Other SourcesAppendix 7 521

Two Case Studies From the IRIC Organizational Cultures Research ProjectAppendix 8 523

The Author's ValuesReferences 525

Name Index 569

Subject Index 585

About the Author 599