1．Values and Culture 1
Summary of This Chapter 1
Definitions and Distinctions 1
Mental Programs 1
Describing Mental Programs in Measurable Terms 4
Values 5
Measuring Values 7
Culture 9
National Cultures and Their Stability 11
National Character and National Stereotypes 13
Cultural Relativism 15
Studying Culture 15
Comparing Cultures:Changing the Level of Analysis 15
Avoiding Ethnocentrism 17
The Need for a Multidisciplinary Approach 19
Language and Translation 21
Matching Samples:Functional Equivalence 23
Modal and Marginal Phenomena 24
Dimensions of Culture 24
The Specific and the General 24
Searching for Dimensions of Culture 26
Dimensions Versus Typologies 28
Five Basic Problems of National Societies 28
Other Dimensions of Culture in the Literature:Theory Based 29
Other Dimensions of Culture in the Literature:Empirical 31
Culture Change 34
The Process of Culture Change 34
Culture Change and the IBM Data 34
Notes 36
2．Data Collection,Treatment,and Validation 41
Summary of This Chapter 41
The Research Settings 41
The IBM Corporation 41
The Use of Attitude Surveysin IBM 43
Questionnaire Translation and Survey Administration 46
The IBM Survey Database 48
A Second Research Setting:IMEDE Business School 49
Data Treatment 49
Frequency Distributions and Central Tendency Within Groups 49
ANOVA:Country,Occupation,Gender,and Age 50
Comparing 40 Countries:Matching Occupations 51
Extension to 50 Countries Plus Three Regions 52
Selecting Stable Questions 52
Eclectic Analysis:Power Distance and Uncertainty Avoidance 53
Wark Goal Importance Data:Eliminating Acquiescence 56
Work Goal Importance:Ecological Factor Analysis 58
Putting the Four Dimensions Together 58
Value Shifts in IBM Between 1967-69 and 1971-73 60
Correlations Between Index Scores 60
Country Clusters 62
Multilingual Countries:Belgium,Switzerland,and Yugoslavia 63
Validation 65
The Reliability of Country Dimension Scores 65
Replicating the IBM Research 66
Comparing With Data From Other Sources 67
Economic,Geographic,and Demographic Indicators 68
Adding a Fifth Dimension 69
Studying Organizational Cultures 71
Support and Criticisms of the Approach Followed 73
Notes 73
3．Power Distance 79
Summary of This Chapter 79
Inequality and Power Distance 79
On Animal and Human Inequality 79
Inequality in Society 80
Inequality in Organizations 82
The Concept of Power Distance 83
Power Distance and Human Inequality 84
Measuring National Differences in Power Distance in IBM 84
Organization of Chapters 3 Through 7 84
A Power Distance Index for IBM Countries 85
Power Distance Index Scores by Occupation 88
Gender Differences in Power Distance 90
Country Power Distance Index Scores and Other IBM Survey Questions 90
Validating PDI Against Data From Other Sources 91
Straight Replications of the IBM Survey 91
PDI Versus Studies of General Values in Society 92
Summary of General Connotations of the Power Distance Index Found in Survey Material 96
Origins and Implications of Country Power Distance Differences 97
The Power Distance Societal Norm 97
Power Distance in the Family 98
Power Distance,Schools,and Educational Systems 100
Power Distance in Work and Organization 102
Power Distance,Worker Participation,and"Industrial Democracy" 106
Power Distance and Political Systems 110
Power Distance and Religion,Ideology,and Theories of Power 113
Power Distance and Aviation Safety 115
Predictors of PDI:Latitude,Population Size,and Wealth 115
Power Distance and Historical Factors:D'Iribarne's Contribution 117
Power Distance and Historical Factors:The Roman Empire and Colonialism 119
The Future of Power Distance Differences 121
Statistical Analysis of Data Used in This Chapter 123
Calculating the Power Distance Index by Country 123
Power Distance Index Scores by Occupation 125
Straight Replications of the IBM Survey 126
Results of Other Survey Studies Significantly Correlated With PDI 126
Indexes at the National Level Significantly Correlated With PDI 128
PDI Versus Eight Geographic,Economic,and Demographic Indicators 132
Trends in PDI 135
Notes 137
4．Uncertainty Avoidance 145
Summary of This Chapter 145
The Concept of Uncertainty Avoidance 145
Time,Future,Uncertainty,and Anxiety 145
Uncertainty Avoidance in Organizations 146
Uncertainty Avoidance Is Not the Same as Risk Avoidance 148
Measuring National Differences in Uncertainty Avoidance in IBM 148
An Uncertainty Avoidance Indexfor IBM Countries 148
Uncertainty Avoidance Versus Power Distance 150
Occupation and Gender Differences in the Scores on the Uncertainty Avoidance Items 151
Country UAI Scores and Other IBM Survey Questions 153
Validating UAI Against Data From Other Sources 154
Straight Replications of the IBM Survey 154
UAI,Anxiety,and Emotions:Studies by Lynn and Others 155
UAI and Subjective Well-Being 157
UAI Versus Studies of General Values in Society 158
Summary of General Connotations of the Uncertainty Avoidance Index Found in Survey Material 159
Origins and Implications of Country Uncertainty Avoidance Differences 159
The Uncertainty Avoidance Societal Norm 159
Uncertainty Avoidance in the Family 161
Uncertainty Avoidance,Schools,and Educational Systems 162
UAI and Achievement Motivation:McClelland's Data 163
Uncertainty Avoidance in the Work Situation 165
Uncertainty Avoidance and Consumer Behavior 170
Uncertainty Avoidance and Political Systems 171
Uncertainty Avoidance and Legislation 174
Uncertainty Avoidance,Nationalism,and Xenophobia 175
Uncertainty Avoidance and Religions 176
Uncertainty Avoidance,Theories,and Games 177
Predictors of UAI 179
Uncertainty Avoidance and Historical Factors 179
The Future of Uncertainty Avoidance Differences 181
Statistical Analysis of Data Used in This Chapter 183
Calculating the Uncertainty Avoidance Index by Country 183
Calculating Differences in Item Scores by Occupation 183
Country UAI,Average Age of Respondents,and Other IBM Survey Questions 184
Straight Replications of the IBM Survey 186
Studies of Stress and Well-Being 188
McClelland's Study of Motivation 190
Results of Other Surveys Correlated With UAI 190
Indexes at the National Level Correlated With UAI 197
UAI Versus Eight Geographic,Economic,and Demographic Indicators 198
Trends in UAI 198
Notes 199
5．Individualism and Collectivism 209
Summary of This Chapter 209
The Individual and the Collectivity 209
Individualism in Society 209
Individualism in Organizations and Organization Theories 212
Measuring National Differences in Individualism in IBM 214
An Individualism Index for Countries in the IBM Sample 214
Societal Versus Individual Individualism and Collectivism,and Whether Ind and Col Are One or Two Dimensions 215
Individualism Versus Power Distance and Uncertainty Avoidance 216
Individualism and Occupation,Gender,and Age 218
Country Individualism Index Scores and Other IBM Survey Questions 218
Validating IDV Against Data From Other Sources 219
Distinguishing IDV From PDI and GNP/Capita 219
Straight Replications of the IBM Survey 219
IDV Versus Schwartz's Values Surveys of Teachers and Students 220
IDV Versus Smith and Dugan's Analysis of Trompenaars's Data 221
IDV Versus Inglehart's Analysis of the World Values Survey 223
IDV Scores and Other Studies of General Values 224
Summary of Value Connotations of the Individualism Index Found in Surveys and Related Material 225
Origins and Implications of Country Individualism Differences 225
The Individualism Societal Norm 225
Individualism and Collectivism in the Family 225
Individualism and Collectivism Versus Personality and Behavior 231
Individualism and Collectivism in Language Use and Group Identity 233
Individualism and Collectivism,Schools,and Educational Systems 234
Individualism and Collectivism in the Work Situation 235
Collectivism and the Applicability of Management Methods 240
Individualism and Consumer Behavior 241
Health and Disability in Individualist and Collectivist Societies 242
Individualism or Collectivism,Political Systems,and Legislation 243
Individualism and Collectivism,Religions,and Ideas 249
Predictors of IDV:Wealth and Latitude 250
Individualism and Historical Factors 253
The Future of Individualism Differences 254
Statistical Analysis of Data Used in This Chapter 255
Calculating the Individualism Index by Country 255
Work Goal Dimensions by Occupation 257
Country IDV Scores and Other IBM Survey Questions 258
Earlier Studies of Work Goals in IBM 258
Straight Replications of the IBM Survey 260
Results of Other Surveys Correlated With IDV 264
Indexes at the National Level Correlated With IDV 268
IDV Versus Eight Geographic,Economic,and Demographic Indicators 269
Trends in IDV 272
Notes 273
6．Masculinity and Femininity 279
Summary of This Chapter 279
Sexes,Genders,and Gender Roles 279
Absolute,Statistical,and Social Sex Differences 279
Gender Differences in Work Goals 281
Measuring National Differences in Masculinity in IBM 284
A Masculinity Index for Countries in the IBM Sample 284
Masculinity and Occupation,Gender,and Age 285
Country MAS Scores and Other IBM Survey Questions 290
MAS and Work Centrality in IBM 291
Societal Versus Individual Masculinity and Femininity,and Whether Mas and Fem Are One or Two Dimensions 292
Masculinity Versus Individualism 293
Validating MAS Against Data From Other Sources 294
The Need to Control for Wealth Differences 294
Straight Replications of the IBM Survey 295
MAS Scores Versus Other Values Surveys 296
Summary of Connotations of the Masculinity Index Found in Surveys and Related Material 297
Origins and Implications of Country Masculinity Differences 297
The Masculinity Societal Norm 297
Masculinity and Femininity in the Family 298
Masculinity,Schools,and Educational Systems 303
Masculinity and Femininity in Gender Roles 305
Masculinity and Consumer Behavior 310
Masculinity and Femininity in the Workplace 311
Masculinity,Femininity,and Political Priorities 317
Masculinity,Femininity,and Political Mores 321
Masculinity and Sexual Behavior 322
Masculinity,Femininity,and Religion 327
Masculinity and Geographic,Economic,and Demographic Factors 331
Masculinity and(Pre)Historical Factors 331
The Future of Masculinity/Femininity Differences 333
Statistical Analysis of Data Used in This Chapter 335
Computing MAS for Old and New Cases 335
Country MAS Scores and Other IBM Survey Questions 335
Straight Replications of the IBM Survey 335
Results of Other Studies Correlated With MAS 337
MAS Versus Eight Geographic,Economic,and Demographic Indicators 339
Trends in MAS 340
Notes 341
7．Long-Versus Short-Term Orientation 351
Summary of This Chapter 351
East Versus West 351
Cultural Biases in the Researchers'Minds 351
The Chinese Value Survey 352
Long-Term Orientation as a Fifth Dimension 353
Measuring and Validating National Differences in Long-Term Orientation 355
A Long-Term Orientation Indexfor 23 Countries 355
Replications of the Measurement of Long-Term Orientation 355
Validating LTO Against Other Studies of Values 355
LTO and Savings Rates:Read's Study 358
Summary of Validations and Connotations of the Long-Term Orientation Index Found in Surveys and Related Material 359
Implications of Country Long-Term Orientation Differences 359
LTO and Family,Social Relationships,and Work 359
LTO and Ways of Thinking 362
LTO and Economic Growth 365
Long-and Short-Term Orientation in the Hindu and Muslim Worlds 368
African Values:A New Dimension? 369
The Future of Long-Term Orientation 370
Notes 370
8．Cultures in Organizations 373
Summary of This Chapter 373
Organizations and National Cultures 373
There Are No Universal Solutions to Organization and Management Problems 373
The Functioning of Organizations 375
Culture and Organization Theories:Nationality Constrains Rationality 378
Planning,Control,and Accounting 381
Corporate Governance 384
Motivation and Compensation 385
Leadership and Empowerment 388
Management Development and Organization Development 390
Performance Appraisal and Management by Objectives 391
Organizational Cultures 391
The"Organizational Culture"Construct 391
Differences Between Organizational and National Cultures 393
The IRIC Organizational Culture Research Project 395
Dimensions of Organizational Cultures 397
Validating the Practice Dimensions 400
Organizational Subcultures 405
The Usefulness of the Organizational Culture Construct 408
How Universal Are the Six Organizational Culture Diniensions? 410
Individual Perceptions of Organizational Cultures 411
Implications of the Level of Analysis:Gardens,Bouquets,and Flowers 413
Occupational Cultures 414
Notes 415
9．Intercultural Encounters 423
Summary of This Chapter 423
Intercultural Communication and Cooperation 423
General Principles 423
Language and Discourse 425
Culture Shock and Expatriate Failure 425
Training in Intercultural Competence 427
Political Issues 429
Minorities,Migrants,and Refugees 429
International Politics and International Organizations 431
Intercultural Negotiations 435
Economic Development,Nondevelopment,and Development Cooperation 437
Multinational Business 440
The Functioning of Multinational Business Organizations 440
International Acquisitions,Mergers,and Joint Ventures 445
International Marketing,Advertising,and Consumer Behavior 448
Schools,Tourism,and a Look Ahead 451
Intercultural Encounters in Schools 451
Intercultural Encounters in Tourism 452
The Influence of New Technology 453
Cultural Relativism,Convergence,and Divergence 453
Notes 454
10．Using Culture Dimension Scores in Theory and Research 461
Summary of This Chapter 461
Applications of the Dimensional Model 461
The Fortunes of Continued Research in Six Areas 461
Fields of Application 462
Replications and Their Pitfalls 463
Extensions to New Countries 464
Using the Dimensional Model as a Paradigm 465
Closing Remarks 466
Notes 466
AppendixesAppendix 1 467
Questions From the IBM Attitude Survey Questionnaire Referred to in This BookAppendix 2 475
Country Scores on A,B,and C Questions(except A5-A32 and C1-C8)Appendix 3 483
Standardized Country and Occupation Scores for Work Goals(questions A5-18 and C1-C8)Appendix 4 491
Replicating the IBM-Style Cross-National SurveyAppendix 5 499
Summary of Country Index Scores(including additions)Appendix 6 503
Summary of Significant Correlations of Country Index Scores With Data From Other SourcesAppendix 7 521
Two Case Studies From the IRIC Organizational Cultures Research ProjectAppendix 8 523
The Author's ValuesReferences 525
Name Index 569
Subject Index 585
About the Author 599