The Practice of Social Research 社会研究方法PDF电子书下载

IndexI 1

Holographic Overview 1

PART 1

PART 1

AppendixesA 1

Contents in Detail 1

Prefacexvi 1

BibliographyB 1

AppendixesA 1

GlossaryG 1

Using the LibraryA 2

AUsing the LibraryA 2

PART 2

PART 2

PART 3

PART 3

PART 4

PART 4

PART 5

PART 5

BSocial Research in CyberspaceA 8

Social Research in CyberspaceA 8

An Introduction to Inquiry 14

An Introduction to Inquiry 14

1Human Inquiry and Science 16

The Research ReportA 16

Human Inquiry and Science 16

CThe Research ReportA 16

Introduction 17

Looking for Reality 18

Ordinary Human Inquiry 18

Tradition 19

Authority 19

Errors in Inquiry,and Some Solutions 20

What s Really Real? 21

GSS Household Enumeration 23

QuestionnaireA 23

DGSS Household Enumeration QuestionnaireA 23

The Foundations of Social Science 24

Theory,Not Philosophy or Belief 25

Social Regularities 25

Aggregates,Not Individuals 27

A Variable Language 28

Some Dialectics of Social Science 33

ERandom NumbersA 33

Random NumbersA 33

Idiographic and Nomothetic Explanation 33

Inductive and Deductive Theory 34

FDistribution of Chi SquareA 35

Distribution of Chi SquareA 35

Qualitative and Quantitative Data 36

The Ethics of Social Research 37

Normal Curve AreasA 37

GNormal Curve AreasA 37

Estimated Sampling ErrorA 38

HEstimated Sampling ErrorA 38

No Harm to Subjects 38

MAIN POINTS 38

Voluntary Participation 38

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 39

KEY TERMS 39

A Learner s Guide to SPSS 8.0A 40

ADDITIONAL READINGS 40

SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE 40

INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION 40

2Paradigms,Theory,and Social Research 41

Research 41

Paradigms,Theory,and Social 41

Introduction 42

Some Social Science Paradigms 42

Social Darwinsm 44

Macrotheory and Microtheory 44

Early Positivism 44

Conflict Paradigm 45

Symbolic Interactionism 46

IA Learner s Guide to SPSS 8.0A 46

Ethnomethodology 46

Structural Functionalism 47

Feminist Paradigms 48

Rational Objectivity Reconsidered 49

Elements of Social Theory 51

Two Logical Systems Revisited 53

The Traditional Model of Science 53

Deductive and Inductive Reasoning:A CaseIllustration 55

A Graphic Contrast 58

Constructing Your Theory 60

Deductive Theory Construction 60

Getting Started 60

An Example of Deductive Theory: 61

Distributive Justice 61

Inductive Theory Construction 63

An Example of Inductive Theory:Why DoPeople Smoke Marijuana? 63

The Links Between Theory and Research 64

MAIN POINTS 65

KEY TERMS 66

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 66

ADDITIONAL READINGS 66

SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE 67

INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION 67

The Idea of Causation in Social 68

3The Idea of Causation in Social Research 68

Research 68

Finding Causes in Social Science 69

Introduction 69

Determinism and Social Science 69

Causation in the Natural Sciences 69

Reasons Have Reasons 70

Determinism in Perspective 71

Causation in Idiographic and NomotheticModels of Explanation 72

Twenty Questions a Journalist Should 75

Ask about Poll ResultsA 75

JTwenty Questions a Journalist Should Askabout Poll ResultsA 75

Criteria for Causality 75

Necessary and Sufficient Causes 78

Errors in Reasoning About Causation 81

False Dilemma 82

Suppressed Evidence 82

Provincialism 82

Hasty Conclusion 82

Questionable Cause 82

Associating Variables 83

Practical Problems in Measuring and 83

Linking Measurement and Association 83

Association 84

An Example of Measurement and 84

MAIN POINTS 85

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 86

KEY TERMS 86

INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION 87

SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE 87

ADDITIONAL READINGS 87

The Structure of Inquiry 88

The Structure of Inquiry 88

4Research Design 90

Research Design 90

Exploration 91

Introduction 91

Three Purposes of Research 91

Explanation 92

Description 92

Units of Analysis 94

Individuals 95

Social Artifacts 96

Groups 96

Organizations 96

Units of Analysis in Review 97

and Reductionism 100

Faulty Reasoning about Units 100

of Analysis:The Ecological Fallacy 100

Cross-Sectional Studies 101

The Time Dimension 101

Longitudinal Studies 102

Approximating Longitudinal Studies 104

Examples of Research Strategies 106

How To Design a Research Project 107

Conceptualization 109

Getting Started 109

Population and Sampling 110

Choice of Research Method 110

Operationalization 110

Analysis 111

Observations 111

Data Processing 111

Research Design in Review 112

Application 112

Elements of a Research Proposal 113

The Research Proposal 113

MAIN POINTS 114

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 115

KEY TERMS 115

ADDITIONAL READINGS 116

INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION 117

ANSWERS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS AND 117

EXERCISES,ITEM 2 117

SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE 117

5Conceptualization,Operationalization,and Measurement 118

Conceptualization,Operationaliza- 118

tion,and Measurement 118

Introduction 119

Measuring Anything That Exists 119

Conceptions,Concepts,and Reality 120

Conceptions as Constructs 121

Conceptualization 122

Indicators and Dimensions 123

The Interchangeability of Indicators 124

Real,Nominal,and Operational 124

Definitions 124

Creating Conceptual Order 125

An Example of Conceptualization: 126

The Concept of Anomie 126

Definitions in Descriptive and ExplanatoryStudies 129

Operationalization Choices 132

Range of Variation 132

Variations between the Extremes 133

A Note on Dimensions 133

Defining Variables and Attributes 134

Levels of Measurement 134

Single or Multiple Indicators 138

Some Illustrations of OperationalizationChoices 138

Operationalization Goes On and On 139

Criteria of Measurement Quality 140

Precision and Accuracy 140

Reliability 140

Validity 143

Who Decides What s Valid? 144

Tension between Reliability and 145

Validity 145

MAIN POINTS 145

KEY TERMS 146

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 146

ADDITIONAL READINGS 147

SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE 147

INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION 147

Indexes,Scales,and Typologies 148

6Indexes,Scales,and Typologies 148

Introduction 149

Indexes versus Scales 149

Index Construction 152

Item Selection 152

Examination of Empirical Relationships 153

Index Scoring 158

Handling Missing Data 160

Index Validation 162

The Status of Women:An Illustration 164

of Index Construction 164

Scale Construction 165

Thurstone Scales 166

Bogardus Social Distance Scale 166

Likert Scaling 167

Guttman Scaling 168

Semantic Differential 168

Typologies 171

KEY TERMS 173

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 173

MAIN POINTS 173

ADDITIONAL READINGS 174

INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION 174

SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE 174

The Logic of Sampling 175

7The Logic of Sampling 175

Introduction 176

A Brief History of Sampling 177

President Alf Landon 177

Two Types of Sampling Methods 178

President Thomas E.Dewey 178

Nonprobability Sampling 178

Reliance on Available Subjects 179

Purposive or Judgmental Sampling 179

Quota Sampling 180

Snowball Sampling 180

Selecting Informants 181

The Theory and Logic of Probability 182

Sampling Bias 182

Conscious and Unconscious 182

Sampling 182

Representativeness and Probability 184

of Selection 184

Random Selection 185

Probability Theory,Sampling Distributions,and Estimates of Sample Error 186

Populations and Sampling Frames 194

Frames 196

Review of Populations and Sampling 196

Simple Random Sampling 197

Types of Sampling Designs 197

Systematic Sampling 197

Stratified Sampling 201

Implicit Stratification in SystematicSampling 202

Students 203

Illustration:Sampling University 203

Multistage Designs and Sampling Error 204

Multistage Cluster Sampling 204

Sampling 205

Probability Proportionate to Size(PPS)Sampling 205

Stratification in Multistage Cluster 205

Disproportionate Sampling and 208

Weighting 208

Illustration:Sampling Churchwomen 210

Probability Sampling in Review 211

MAIN POINTS 212

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 213

SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE 213

INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION 213

ADDITIONAL READINGS 213

KEY TERMS 213

Modes of Observation 214

Modes of Observation 214

8Experiments 216

Experiments 216

The Classical Experiment 217

Introduction 217

Topics Appropriate to Experiments 217

Pretesting and Posttesting 218

Independent and Dependent Variables 218

Experimental and Control Groups 219

The Double-Blind Experiment 220

Selecting Subjects 221

Probability Sampling 221

Randomization 222

Matching 222

Matching or Randomization? 223

Preexperimental Research Designs 224

Variations on Experimental Design 224

Research 225

Validity Issues in Experimental 225

An Illustration of Experimentation 230

Natural Experiments 232

Strengths and Weaknesses of the 234

Experimental Method 234

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 235

MAIN POINTS 235

KEY TERMS 235

SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE 236

INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION 236

ADDITIONAL READINGS 236

Survey Research 237

9Survey Research 237

Introduction 238

Topics Appropriate for Survey Research 238

Choose Appropriate Question Forms 239

Guidelines for Asking Questions 239

Make Items Clear 240

Avoid Double-Barreled Questions 241

Respondents Must Be Competent 241

to Answer 241

Questions Should Be Relevant 243

Short Items Are Best 243

Answer 243

Respondents Must Be Willing to 243

Avoid Biased Items and Terms 244

Avoid Negative Items 244

Questionnaire Construction 245

General Questionnaire Format 245

Contingency Questions 246

Formats for Respondents 246

Matrix Questions 248

Ordering Items in a Questionnaire 249

Questionnaire Instructions 249

Pretesting the Questionnaire 250

Mail Distribution and Return 253

Self-Administered Questionnaires 253

A Composite Illustration 253

Monitoring Returns 254

Follow-up Mailings 255

Acceptable Response Rates 256

A Case Study 257

Interview Surveys 258

The Role of the Survey Interviewer 258

Interviewing 259

General Guidelines for Survey 259

Coordination and Control 261

Telephone Surveys 262

Interviewing(CATI) 265

Computer Assisted Telephone 265

New Technologies and Survey Research 265

Comparison of the Different Survey 267

Methods 267

Strengths and Weaknesses of Survey 268

Research 268

Secondary Analysis 269

MAIN POINTS 270

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 271

KEY TERMS 271

ADDITIONAL READINGS 272

INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION 273

SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE 273

Qualitative Field Research 274

10Qualitative Field Research 274

Introduction 275

Topics Appropriate to Field Research 275

Special Considerations in Qualitative 277

Field Research 277

The Various Roles of the Observer 278

Relations to Subjects 279

Naturalism 281

Some Qualitative Field Research 281

Paradigms 281

Ethnomethodology 282

Grounded Theory 284

Case Method 285

Case Studies and the Extended 285

Institutional Ethnography 287

Participatory Action Research 288

Preparing for the Field 290

Conducting Qualitative Field Research 290

Qualitative Interviewing 291

Focus Groups 294

Recording Observations 295

Validity 298

Strengths and Weaknesses of QualitativeField Research 298

Reliability 299

Research Ethics in Qualitative Field 300

MAIN POINTS 300

Research 300

KEY TERMS 301

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 301

ADDITIONAL READINGS 301

SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE 302

INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION 302

11Unobtrusive Measures 303

Unobtrusive Measures 303

Introduction 304

Content Analysis 304

Sampling in Content Analysis 305

Topics Appropriate to Content Analysis 305

Coding in Content Analysis 309

An Illustration of Content Analysis 313

Analysis 314

Strengths and Weaknesses of Content 314

Durkheim s Study of Suicide 315

Analyzing Existing Statistics 315

Units of Analysis 316

Problems of Reliability 318

Problems of Validity 318

Sources of Existing Statistics 319

Examples of Historical/Comparative 322

Analysis 322

Historical/Comparative Analysis 322

Sources of Historical/Comparative Data 325

Analytical Techniques 327

MAIN POINTS 328

KEY TERMS 329

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 329

ADDITIONAL READINGS 329

INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION 330

SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE 330

Evaluation Research 331

12Evaluation Research 331

Introduction 332

Topics Appropriate to Evaluation 333

Research 333

Formulating the Problem:Issues 334

of Measurement 334

Specifying Outcomes 335

Measuring Experimental Contexts 336

Specifying the Population 336

Specifying Interventions 336

New versus Existing Measures 337

Operationalizing Success/Failure 337

Types of Evaluation Research Designs 338

Experimental Designs 338

Quasi-Experimental Designs 339

Qualitative Evaluations 342

The Social Context 344

Logistical Problems 344

Some Ethical Issues 346

Use of Research Results 346

Social Indicators Research 351

The Death Penalty and Deterrence 352

Computer Simulation 353

ADDITIONAL READINGS 354

MAIN POINTS 354

KEY TERMS 354

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 354

SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE 355

INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION 355

Analysis of Data 356

Analysis of Data 356

Qualitative Data Analysis 358

13Qualitative Data Analysis 358

Introduction 359

Linking Theory and Analysis 359

Discovering Patterns 359

Grounded Theory Method 361

Semiotics 362

Coding 364

Conversation Analysis 364

Qualitative Data Processing 364

Memoing 368

Concept Mapping 369

Computer Programs for Qualitative Data 370

Leviticus as Seen through NUD*IST 371

Sandrine Zerbib:Understanding Women 376

Film Directors 376

MAIN POINTS 380

KEY TERMS 381

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 381

SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE 382

INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION 382

ADDITIONAL READINGS 382

Quantifying Data 383

14Quantifying Data 383

Introduction 384

Computers in Social Research 384

Coding 387

Developing Code Categories 387

Codebook Construction 389

Coding and Data Entry Options 390

Transfer Sheets 391

Edge-Coding 391

Direct Data Entry 391

Data Entry by Interviewers 391

Connecting with a Data-Analysis 392

Coding to Optical Scan Sheets 392

Program 392

Direct Use of Optical Scan Sheets 392

Data Cleaning 392

Possible-Code Cleaning 393

Contingency Cleaning 393

MAIN POINTS 393

ADDITIONAL READINGS 394

KEY TERMS 394

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 394

SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE 395

INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION 395

15Elementary Quantitative Analyses 396

Elementary Quantitative 396

Analyses 396

Introduction 397

Univariate Analysis 397

Distributions 397

Central Tendency 398

Dispersion 401

Detail versus Manageability 402

Continuous and Discrete Variables 402

Subgroup Comparisons 403

Collapsing Response Categories 404

Handling Don t Knows 404

Research 406

Bivariate Analysis 406

Numerical Descriptions in Qualitative 406

Constructing and Reading Bivariate 408

Percentaging a Table 408

Tables 408

Introduction to Multivariate Analysis 412

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 414

KEY WORDS 414

MAIN POINTS 414

SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE 415

INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION 415

ADDITIONAL READINGS 415

16The Elaboration Model 416

The Elaboration Model 416

Introduction 417

The Origins of the Elaboration Model 417

The Elaboration Paradigm 421

Replication 422

Explanation 423

Interpretation 425

Specification 425

Refinements to the Paradigm 428

Elaboration and Ex Post Facto 430

Hypothesizing 430

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 432

MAIN POINTS 432

KEY TERMS 432

INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION 433

ADDITIONAL READINGS 433

SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE 433

Social Statistics 434

17Social Statistics 434

Introduction 435

The Danger of Success in Math 435

Descriptive Statistics 436

Data Reduction 436

Measures of Association 437

Regression Analysis 442

Other Multivariate Techniques 446

Path Analysis 446

Time-Series Analysis 448

Factor Analysis 449

Univariate Inferences 452

Inferential Statistics 452

Tests of Statistical Significance 453

The Logic of Statistical Significance 453

Chi Square 459

MAIN POINTS 463

ADDITIONAL READINGS 464

SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE 464

KEY TERMS 464

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 464

INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION 465

of Research 466

The Social Context 466

The Social Context of Research 466

Research 468

18The Ethics and Politics of Social Research 468

The Ethics and Politics of Social 468

Introduction 469

Voluntary Participation 470

Ethical Issues in Social Research 470

No Harm to the Participants 471

Anonymity and Confidentiality 472

Deception 474

Analysis and Reporting 475

Institutional Review Boards 476

Professional Codes of Ethics 477

Observing Human Obedience 479

Two Ethical Controversies 479

Trouble in the Tearoom 479

The Politics of Social Research 481

Objectivity and Ideology 481

Politics with a Little P 484

Politics in Perspective 485

KEY TERMS 487

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 487

MAIN POINTS 487

ADDITIONAL READINGS 488

SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE 489

INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION 489

The Uses of Social Research 490

19The Uses of Social Research 490

Introduction 491

Theory—Data Collection—Analysis 491

Everyday Uses of Social Research Skills 492

A Consumer s Guide to Social Research 493

Measurement 494

Research Design 494

Experiments 495

Sampling 495

Survey Research 496

Field Research 496

Analyzing Existing Statistics 497

Evaluation Research 497

Data Analysis 497

Reporting 498

SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE 498

INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION 498

Conclusion 498