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Chapter 1 ACTUS REUS AND MENS REA 1

Ⅰ.ACTUS REUS 1

A. Significance of actus reus concept 1

B. Distinguished from thoughts, words, possession and status 1

1. Statement of intent made to third party 1

2. Possession as criminal act 1

3. Unconsciousness 3

2. Reflex or convulsion 3

1. Model Penal Code examples 3

C. Act must be voluntary 3

4. Hypnotism 4

5. Self-induced state 4

D. Omissions 5

1. Distinguished from affirmative acts 5

2. Limited liability for omissions 5

Quiz Yourself on ACTUS REUS 9

Ⅱ. MENS REA 11

A. Introduction 11

1. General intent 12

B. General versus specific intent 12

2. Specific intent 13

C. Common law vs. statutory crimes 13

1. Statutory offenses not existing at common law 14

D. Presumption of intent 14

E. Different states of mind 14

F. Purposely 14

G. Knowingly 16

H. Recklessly 19

I. Negligently 20

1. Constitutionality 21

J. Strict liability 21

2. Interpretation 22

3. Typical strict-liability provisions 23

K. Vicarious liability 24

L. Mistakes of fact or law 26

1. Grounds for confusion 26

2. General mental state 26

3. Mistake must be reasonable 27

4. Mistake of law 27

5. Modern view 27

6. Unreasonable mistake 28

8. Mistake of law as to collateral fact 29

7. Lesser crime theory retained 29

9. Mistaken belief that conduct is not a crime 30

10. Exceptions to general rule 31

Quiz Yourself on MENS REA 33

Ⅲ. CONCURRENCE 35

A. Concurrence generally 35

B. Concurrence between mind and act ( temporal concurrence ) 35

3. Concurrence must be with act, not results 36

4. Concurrence may be with any act that is legal cause of harm 36

1. Mental state must cause act 36

2. Voluntary intoxication 36

C. Concurrence between mind and result 37

1. Different crime occurs 37

2. Recklessly- or negligently-caused result 38

3. Felony-murder and misdemeanor-manslaughter rules 38

4. Same kind of harm but different degree 39

5. Manner of harm 39

Quiz Yourself on CONCURRENCE 40

6. Different victim 40

Exam Tips on ACTUS REAS AND MENS REA 41

Chapter 2 CAUSATION 44

Ⅰ. INTRODUCTION 44

Ⅱ. CAUSE IN FACT 44

A. Cause in fact generally 44

1. Expansive test 44

2. Substantial factor test 44

3. Shortening of life 45

4. Murder victim must have been alive at time of act 45

A. Proximate cause, in general 46

B. No mechanical principles 46

5. Two people working together 46

Ⅲ. PROXIMATE CAUSE GENERALLY 46

1. Year-and-a-day rule in homicide 47

Ⅳ. PROXIMATE CAUSE—UNINTENDED VICTIMS 47

A. Unintended victims generally 47

B. Resulting crime is more serious 48

C. Application where different property destroyed 48

G. Mistake of identity 49

F. Defense assertable against intended victim 49

E. Must be linked to manner of harm problems 49

D. Actual victim not foreseeable 49

H. Crimes of recklessness or negligence 50

Ⅴ. PROXIMATE CAUSE—UNINTENDED MANNER OF HARM 51

A. Unintended manner of harm generally 51

1. No liability for bizarre results 51

B. Direct causation 51

1. Small differences in type of injury 51

3. Pre-existing weakness 52

4. Death caused without physical impact 52

2. Slightly different mechanism 52

5. Come to rest in apparent safety 53

6. Recklessness and negligence crimes 53

C. Intervening acts 53

1. Dependent vs. independent intervening acts 54

2. Four kinds of acts 54

3. Intervening acts by third person 54

4. Act by victim 57

5. Act by defendant 59

D. Causation in felony-murder and misdemeanor-manslaughter cases 60

6. Non-human event 60

7. Recklessness or negligence crime 60

E. Strict liability crimes 61

Quiz Yourself on CAUSATION (ENTIRE CHAPTER) 61

Exam Tips on CAUSATION 64

Chapter 3 RESPONSIBILITY 67

Ⅰ. THE INSANITY DEFENSE 67

A. General purpose 67

C. M Naghten right-wrong rule 68

B. Tests for insanity 68

D. Irresistible impulse 70

E. The Durham product test 70

F. Model Penal Code standard 70

1. Similarity to older tests 71

2. Only substantial capacity might be lacking 71

3. Emotional awareness of wrongful conduct 71

4. Psychopaths and sociopaths 71

G. The federal standard 72

1. Who raises defense 73

2. Burden of persuasion 73

H. Raising and establishing the defense 73

3. When defense must be raised 74

4. Psychiatric examination 74

5. Role of the jury 75

6. Bifurcated trial 76

7. Insanity defense as all or nothing 76

I. XYY chromosome defense 77

J. Commitment following insanity acquittal 77

K. Fitness to stand trial 78

Quiz Yourself on THE INSANITY DEFENSE 79

L. Insanity at time set for execution 79

Ⅱ. DIMINISHED RESPONSIBILITY 80

A. Meaning of diminished responsibility 80

B. Insanity defense sometimes held to be superseding 81

C. Specific applications 82

1. Murder reduced to manslaughter 82

2. Low blood sugar 83

1. People v. Grant 83

B. Defense sometimes superseded by insanity 83

C. Generally allowed in America 83

Ⅲ. AUTOMATISM 83

2. Heat of passion manslaughter 83

A. Nature of automatism defense 83

3. Premenstrual Syndrome defense 84

4. Post-traumatic stress disorder 84

Ⅳ. INTOXICATION 84

A. The problem generally 84

B. Voluntary intoxication 84

2. Specific intent crimes 85

3. Categories abandoned 85

1. Effect upon mental state 85

4. Defense to traditional general intent crimes 86

5. Recklessness 87

6. Negligence 88

7. Self-defense 89

8. Insanity 89

C. Involuntary intoxication 89

1. Several kinds of involuntary intoxication 89

D. Alcoholism and narcotics addiction 91

Quiz Yourself on INTOXICATION 92

B. Effect of legislation 94

A. Common-law treatment 94

Ⅴ. INFANCY 94

Exam Tips on RESPONSIBILITY 95

Chapter 4 JUSTIFICATION AND EXCUSE 98

Ⅰ. GENERAL PRINCIPLES 98

A. Justification vs. excuse 98

B. Effect of mistake of fact 98

C. Overlapping of defenses 99

Ⅱ. DURESS 100

A. Nature of duress 100

B. Elements of the defense 100

C. Rationale for defense 100

D. Homicide cases 100

1. Justifications 100

1. Rule breaking down 101

F. Death or serious bodily injury 101

G. Threat directed at person other than defendant 101

E. Imminence of threatened harm 101

2. Felony-murder 101

H. Effect of mistake 102

I. Defendant who voluntarily subjects himself to danger 102

J. Wife coerced by husband 102

K. Military orders 102

L. Guilt of coercer 102

1. Choice of evils 103

A. The necessity defense generally 103

Ⅲ. NECESSITY 103

M. Relation to choice of evils or necessity defense 103

B. Requirements for defense 104

1. Greater harm 104

2. No alternative 104

3. Imminence 104

4. Situation not caused by defendant 104

5. Nature of harm 104

C. Illustrative examples 104

D. Homicide 105

F. Civil disobedience 106

G. Prevention of possible future harm not sufficient 106

E. Economic necessity not sufficient 106

Ⅳ. SELF-DEFENSE 107

A. Self-defense generally 107

B. Requirements 107

C. What constitutes unlawful force 107

1. Excessive force 107

E. Deadly force 108

1. Use of non-deadly force 108

D. Degree of force 108

4. Consent 108

3. Effect of mistake 108

2. Force which would be excused 108

F. Imminence of harm 109

1. Not unduly strict standard 109

2. Withdrawal by aggressor 110

G. Aggressor may not defend himself 110

1. Aggression without use of actual force 110

2. Two exceptions 111

3. Retreat in defendant s dwelling 112

2. Only required where it can be safely done 112

1. No retreat required before non-deadly force 112

H. Retreat 112

I. Effect of mistake 113

J. Battered women and self-defense 115

K. Resisting arrest 118

L. Injury to third person 119

M. Imperfect self-defense 120

N. Burden of proof 120

2. Degree of force 121

1. Home of either party 121

D. Retreat 121

3. Belief in another person s right to use force 121

A. Right to defend others in general 121

1. Danger to other 121

C. Requirements for defense 121

B. Relation between defendant and aided person 121

Ⅴ. DEFENSE OF OTHERS 121

E. Mistake as to who is aggressor 122

3. Subsequent use of deadly force 123

2. Limited to reasonable degree 123

B. Deadly force not generally allowed 123

1. Defense of dwelling 123

A. Right to defend property generally 123

Ⅵ. DEFENSE OF PROPERTY 123

1. Non-deadly force 123

C. Use of mechanical devices 124

D. Recapture of chattel and of re-entry on land 125

Ⅶ. PREVENTION OF ESCAPE CRIME 125

A. Law Enforcement privilege generally 125

1. Summary of arrest rules 126

2. Arrest resisted 126

B. Arrest 126

1. Use of force 126

3. Suspect fleeing 127

4. Arrest by private citizen 129

C. Prevention of escape 129

D. Crime prevention 129

1. Reasonable non-deadly force 129

A. Right to maintain authority generally 130

B. Parents of minor 130

2. Deadly force 130

Ⅷ. MAINTAINING AUTHORITY 130

C. School teacher 131

Ⅸ. CONSENT 131

A. Effect of consent by victim 131

B. Incapacity to consent 132

1. Deception 132

C. Contributory negligence of victim 132

D. Guilt of victim 132

E. Condonation and compromise 132

A. Entrapment generally 133

Ⅹ. ENTRAPMENT 133

B. Evidence 134

1. Danger of prejudice 134

C. Distinguish from missing element cases 134

Quiz Yourself on JUSTIFICATION AND EXCUSE (ENTIRE CHAPTER) 135

Exam Tips on JUSTIFICATION AND EXCUSE 141

Chapter 5 ATTEMPT 146

Ⅰ. INTRODUCTION 146

A. Concept of attempt generally 146

1. Specific crime in question 148

2. Knowledge of likely consequences 148

Ⅱ. MENTAL STATE 148

A. Intent usually required 148

3. Crimes defined by recklessness, negligence or strict liability 149

4. Proving intent by circumstantial evidence 149

5. Intent as to surrounding circumstances 149

Ⅲ. THE ACT—ATTEMPT VS. MERE PREPARATION 150

A. Attempt distinguished from mere preparation 150

B. The proximity approach 150

C. The equivocality test 153

D. Model Penal Code s substantial step test 154

B. Factual impossibility 157

1. Not accepted as defense 157

Ⅳ. IMPOSSIBILITY 157

A. Nature of impossibility defense 157

C. True legal impossibility 158

D. Mistake of fact governing legal relationship 158

E. Inherent impossibility (inaptness and superstition) 161

Ⅴ. RENUNCIATION 162

A. Renunciation of criminal purpose 162

B. Modern view accepts defense 163

C. Voluntariness requirement 164

B. Attempt to commit attempt-like crimes 165

Ⅵ. ATTEMPT-LIKE CRIMES 165

A. Inchoate crimes generally 165

1. Assault 166

2. Burglary 166

C. Constitutional objections to attempt-like crimes 166

Ⅶ. MECHANICS OF TRIAL; PUNISHMENT 166

A. Relation between charge and conviction 166

1. Substantive crime charged, attempt proved 167

2. Attempt charged, completed crime proved 167

B. Penalties 167

Quiz Yourself on ATTEMPT (ENTIRE CHAPTER) 167

Exam Tips on ATTEMPT 171

Chapter 6 CONSPIRACY 174

Ⅰ.INTRODUCTION 174

A. Definition of conspiracy 174

B. Purposes of conspiracy law 174

C. Procedural advantages 175

1. Joint trial 175

2. Admission of hearsay 175

Ⅱ. THE AGREEMENT 175

A. Meeting of the minds not required 175

B. Aiding and abetting 176

2. Proof by circumstantial evidence 176

1. Implied agreement 176

C. Parties do net agree to commit object crime 177

D. Feigned agreement 177

1. Traditional view that there is no conspiracy 177

2. Modern view allows conspiracy finding 177

E. Knowledge of the identity of other conspirator 178

Ⅲ. MENS REA 178

A. The intent requirement generally 178

B. Intent to commit object crime 178

3. Strict-liability crimes 179

4. Attendant circumstances 179

1. Must have intent to achieve objective 179

2. Crime of recklessness or negligence 179

C. Supplying of goods and services 180

1. Mere knowledge usually insufficient 180

D. Differing mental states 181

Ⅳ. THE CONSPIRATORIAL OBJECTIVE 182

A. Non-criminal objectives 182

4. Act of one attributable to all 183

3. Kind of act required 183

1. Rationale 183

2. Model Penal Code limits requirement 183

B. Overt act requirement 183

C. Impossibility 184

D. Substantive liability for crimes of other conspirators 184

1. Pinkerton case imposes liability 184

2. Modern view limits Pinkerton 185

Ⅴ. SCOPE: MULTIPLE PARTIES 185

A. Parties not in contact with each other 185

1. Community of interest test 186

B. Wheel conspiracies 186

C. Chain conspiracies 187

1. Community of interest test 187

D. Organized crime 187

E. Party who comes late or leaves early 188

1. Party who leaves early 188

2. Party who joins late 188

Ⅵ. DURATION OF THE CONSPIRACY 188

A. Significance of issue 188

2. Withdrawal by individual conspirator 189

1. Abandonment by all 189

B. Abandonment 189

3. Crime completed 190

Ⅶ. PLURALITY 191

A. Significance of plurality requirement 191

B. Wharton s Rule 191

1. Degree of acceptance 191

2. Rationale 191

3. More persons than necessary 191

5. Merely a presumption 192

4. Only one participant punishable 192

6. Model Penal Code rejects Rule 193

C. Statutory purpose not to punish one party 193

D. Spouses and corporations 194

E. Inconsistent disposition 194

1. Same trial 194

2. Different trials 194

3. One conspirator not brought to justice 195

Ⅷ. PUNISHMENT 195

A. Typical penalty schemes 195

B. Cumulative sentencing 195

Quiz Yourself on CONSPIRACY (ENTIRE CHAPTER) 196

Exam Tips on CONSPIRACY 201

Chapter 7 ACCOMPLICE LIABILITY AND SOLICITATION 205

Ⅰ. PARTIES TO CRIME 205

A. Various parties 205

1. Principal in first degree 205

2. Principal in second degree 205

3. Accessory before the fact 205

A. Aiding and abetting 206

2. Mere presence not sufficient 206

1. Words may be enough 206

Ⅱ. ACCOMPLICES—THE ACT REQUIREMENT 206

B. Procedural effects of classification 206

4. Accessory after the fact 206

3. Failure to intervene 207

B. Aid not crucial 207

1. Not a defense 207

2. Attempted aid 208

3. Attempts to aid where no crime occurs 208

C. Conspiracy as meeting the act requirement 208

2. Knowledge not usually enough 209

1. Must have purpose to further crime 209

3. Mens rea of underlying crime 209

Ⅲ. ACCOMPLICES—MENTAL STATE 209

A. General confusion 209

B. Intentional aid 209

C. Knowledge, but not intent, as to criminal result 210

D. Assistance with crime of recklessness or negligence 211

1. Lending car to drunk driver 211

E. Strict liability 212

Ⅳ. ACCOMPLICES—ADDITIONAL CRIMES BY PRINCIPAL 212

A. Results that are natural and probable but not intended 212

2. Trial court s duty to identify target crime 213

1. Majority rule 213

3. Model Penal Code rejects extended liability 214

4. Felony-murder and misdemeanor-manslaughter 214

Ⅴ. GUILT OF THE PRINCIPAL 216

A. Principal must generally be guilty 216

1. Principal s conviction not necessary 216

2. Inconsistent verdicts in same trial 216

3. Collateral estoppel to aid accomplice 216

B. Principal without required mental state 217

A. Withdrawal as defense 218

Ⅵ. WITHDRAWAL BY THE ACCOMPLICE 218

1. Effect of aid must be undone 219

2. Verbal withdrawal sometimes sufficient 219

3. Warning to authorities 219

4. Not required that crime be thwarted 219

5. Withdrawal motivated by fear of detection 219

Ⅵ. OTHER EXCEPTIONS TO ACCOMPLICE LIABILITY 219

Ⅶ. VICTIMS AND OTHER EXCEPTIONS TO ACCOMPLICELIABILITY 219

A. Defendant who could not be liable as principal 219

2. Crime logically requiring second person 220

1. Victims 220

B. Exceptions for certain classes 220

Ⅷ. POST-CRIME ASSISTANCE 221

A. Accessory after the fact 221

B. Elements of the offense 221

1. Commission of a felony 221

2. Knowledge of felony 221

3. Knowledge of the felon s identity 221

4. Failure to inform not sufficient 221

C. Misprision of felony 221

C. No corroboration required 222

B. No overt act required 222

D. Mental state 222

D. Compounding crime 222

Ⅸ. SOLICITATION 222

A. Solicitation defined 222

1. Renunciation 223

3. Impossibility 223

2. Crime requiring two parties 223

H. Solicitation as an attempted crime 223

G. Defenses 223

F. Communication not received 223

E. Solicitation of accomplice 223

Quiz Yourself on ACCOMPLICE LIABILITY AND SOLICATION (ENTIRE CHAPTER) 224

Exam Tips on ACCOMPLICE LIABILITY AND SOLICITATION 227

Chapter 8 HOMICIDE, AND OTHER CRIMES AGAINST THE PERSON 230

Ⅰ. HOMICIDE—INTRODUCTION 230

A. Different grades of homicide 230

Ⅱ. MURDER 230

A. Taking of life 230

1. When life begins 231

2. Corpus delicti 232

1. Actus reus 232

2. When life ends 232

B. Elements of murder 232

3. Mens rea 233

4. Proximate cause 233

C. Intent-to-kill murder 233

1. Substantial certainty of death 233

2. Ill will not needed 234

3. Intent proved by circumstantial evidence 234

4. Voluntary manslaughter 234

5. Degrees of intent-to-kill murder 234

D. Intent to do serious bodily injury 234

1. Knowledge that injury is highly likely 235

2. Standard is generally subjective 235

3. What constitutes serious bodily injury 235

4. Model Penal Code rejects 235

E. Reckless indifference to value of human life ( depraved heart ) 235

B. Dangerous vs. non-dangerous felonies 237

Ⅲ.FELONY-MURDER 237

A. Felony-murder generally 237

C. Causal relationship 238

1. Illustration 238

2. Natural and probable consequences 239

3. Arson cases 239

4. Robberies and gunfights 239

D. Accomplice liability of co-felons 241

2. Escape as part of felony 242

1. Mere coincidence not enough 242

E. In the commission of a felony 242

3. Killing followed by a felony 243

F. Felony is includible in homicide 243

1. Manslaughter 243

2. Batteries and assaults 243

3. Burglary with intent to assault 244

4. Armed robbery 244

G. Future of the felony-murder rule 244

A. Degrees of murder 246

B. Death Penalty 246

Ⅳ. DEGREES OF MURDER 246

C. First-degree murder 248

1. Time required for premeditation 248

2. Elements which must be shown 249

3. Intoxication as negating deliberation 249

4. Criticism of distinction 249

C. Requirements for voluntary manslaughter 250

B. Voluntary manslaughter based on heat of passion 250

A. Manslaughter generally 250

Ⅴ. MANSLAUGHTER—VOLUNTARY 250

D. Second-degree murder 250

6. Felony-murder 250

5. Lying in wait, torture and poison 250

D. Reasonable provocation 251

1. Characteristics of the reasonable person 251

E. Actual provocation 254

F. Reasonable cooling off period 254

G. Actual cooling off 254

3. Imperfect crime-prevention 255

2. Imperfect defense of others 255

1. Imperfect self-defense 255

I. Other kinds of voluntary manslaughter 255

H. Killing of one other than provoker 255

4. Imperfect coercion or necessity 256

5. Other killings 256

Ⅵ. MANSLAUGHTER—INVOLUNTARY 257

A. Involuntary manslaughter based on criminal negligence 257

1. Vehicular homicide 259

B. Unlawful-act manslaughter ( misdemeanor-manslanghter ) 259

1. What constitutes unlawful act 259

2. Proximate cause 260

3. Criticism of doctrine 261

Quiz Yourself on HOMICIDE (ALL FORMS) 261

Ⅶ. ASSAULT, BATTERY AND MAYHEM 266

A. Battery 266

B. Assault 267

C. Mayhem 268

Ⅷ. RAPE 268

A. Definition of rape 268

1. Intercourse 268

4. Force 269

2. The spousal exemption 269

3. Without consent 269

5. Corroboration 271

B. Statutory rape 271

Ⅸ. KIDNAPPING 272

A. Definition of kidnapping 272

1. Asportation 272

Quiz Yourself on NON-HOMICIDE CRIMES AGAINST THE PERSON 272

Exam Tips on HOMICIDE AND OTHER CRIMES 274

A. Larceny was judge-made crime 283

Ⅰ. HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 283

Chapter 9 THEFT CRIMES 283

Ⅱ. LARCENY 284

A. Definition 284

B. Trespassory taking 284

1. Trapped by owner 285

2. Taking by employee 286

3. Transaction in owner s presence 286

4. Bailee who breaks bulk 287

5. Finders of lost or mislaid property 287

6. Larceny by trick 288

C. Carrying away ( asportation ) 289

D. Personal property of another 289

1. Tangible personal property 289

2. Modem expansion 289

E. Property of another 290

F. Intent to steal 291

1. Intent to permanently deprive owner 291

2. Intent to return equivalent property 291

3. Claim of right 292

4. Concurrence of taking and intent; mistake 293

G. Degrees of larceny 294

Ⅲ. EMBEZZLEMENT 294

A. Definition 294

B. Need for embezzlement crime 294

C. Conversion 295

D. Property of another 295

1. Kind of property which may be embezzled 295

2. Property of another 295

2. Employees 297

1. Limited to certain classes of persons 297

E. By one in lawful possession 297

3. Finders 298

F. Fraudulent taking 298

1. Claim of right 298

2. Collection of debt 298

3. Intent to repay 299

Ⅳ. FALSE PRETENSES 299

C. False representation of present or past fact 300

1. Non-disclosure and concealment 300

2. False promises not sufficient 301

D. Reliance 301

1. Representation must be material 301

E. Passing of title 302

1. The victim has only possession 302

2. Sale as opposed to loan or lease 302

3. Purchase of goods on conditional sale 302

4. Handing over of money 302

2. Reasonable belief in troth of representation 303

1. Practical significance 303

G. Defendant s mental state 303

2. Joint ownership 303

F. Property of another 303

1. Property that qualifies 303

3. Intent to defraud 304

H. Defenses 304

1. Gullibility of victim 304

2. No pecuniary loss 304

I. Crimes related to false pretenses 304

1. Bad checks 304

2. Mail fraud 304

3. Forgery 305

4. Confidence games 305

Ⅴ. CONSOLIDATION OF THEFT CRIMES 305

Ⅵ. RECEIVING STOLEN PROPERTY 306

A. Need for punishing receipt 306

B. Elements of offense 306

B. Breaking 307

A. Common-law burglary 307

C. Entry 307

Ⅶ. BURGLARY 307

D. Dwelling of another 308

E. Nighttime 308

F. Intent to commit a felony 308

Ⅷ. ROBBERY 308

A. Definition of robbery 308

1. Violence 309

D. Aggravated robbery 309

3. Taking must concur with violence or intimidation 309

2. Intimidation 309

C. Use of violence or intimidation 309

B. From the person or presence of owner 309

Ⅸ. BLACKMAIL AND EXTORTION 310

A. Nature of offense 310

B. Nature of threat 310

C. Attempt to recover property 310

Quiz Yourself on THEFT CRIMES (ENTIRE CHAPTER) 310

Exam Tips on THEFT CRIMES 315

ESSAY EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 322

MULTISTATE-STYLE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 331

TABLES AND INDEXES 347

A. Definition 399