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CHAPTER ONE Logic 1

1.1 Historical Background 1

1.3 Varieties of Logic 18

1.4 Names, Types, and Measures 29

1.5 Unity Amidst Diversity 39

CHAPTER TWO Ontology 51

2.1 Ontological Categories 51

2.2 Philosophical Background 55

2.3 Top-Level Categories 67

2.4 Describing Physical Entities 78

2.5 Defining Abstractions 89

2.6 Sets, Collections, Types, and Categories 97

2.7 Space and Time 109

CHAPTER THREE Knowledge Representations 132

3.1 Knowledge Engineering 132

3.2 Representing Structure in Frames 143

3.3 Rules and Data 156

3.4 Object-Oriented Systems 169

3.5 Natural Language Semantics 178

3.6 Levels of Representation 186

CHAPTER FOUR Processes 206

4.1 Times, Events, and Situations 206

4.2 Classification of Processes 213

4.3 Procedures, Processes, and Histories 217

4.4 Concurrent Processes 223

4.5 Computation 232

4.6 Constraint Satisfaction 239

4.7 Change 245

CHAPTER FIVE Purposes, Contexts, and Agents 265

5.1 Purpose 265

5.2 Syntax of Contexts 274

5.3 Semantics of Contexts 284

5.4 First-Order Reasoning in Contexts 297

5.5 Modal Reasoning in Contexts 307

5.6 Encapsulating Objects in Contexts 321

5.7 Agents 330

CHAPTER SIX Knowledge Soup 348

6.1 Vagueness, Uncertainty, Randomness, and Ignorance 348

6.2 Limitations of Logic 356

6.3 Fuzzy Logic 364

6.4 Nonmonotonic Logic 373

6.5 Theories, Models, and the World 383

6.6 Semiotics 394

7.1 Sharing Ontologies 408

CHAPTER SEVEN Knowledge Acquisition and Sharing 408

7.2 Conceptual Schema 417

7.3 Accommodating Multiple Paradigms 427

7.4 Relating Different Knowledge Representations 438

7.5 Language Patterns 445

7.6 Tools for Knowledge Acquisition 452

APPENDIX A Summary of Notations 467

A.1 Predicate Calculus 467

A.2 Conceptual Graphs 476

A.3 Knowledge Interchange Format 489

APPENDIX B Sample Ontology 492

B.1 Principles of Ontology 492

B.2 Top-Level Categories 497

B.3 Role and Relation Types 502

B.4 Thematic Roles 506

B.5 Placement of the Thematic Roles 510

C. 1 Hotel Reservation System 513

APPENDIX C Extended Example 513

C.2 Library Database 515

C.3 ACE Vocabulary 518

C.4 Translating ACE to Logic 518

Answers to Selected Exercises 522

Bibliography 549

Name Index 574

Subject Index 579

Special Symbols 594