成人二语习得中的僵化现象=FOSSILIZATION IN ADULT SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION:英文PDF电子书下载

1 Introduction 1

Fossilization and Ultimate Attainment 5

General failure 5

Differential success/failure 7

A Conceptual Framework 8

An Outline of the Book 10

2 What is Fossilization? 12

Selinker's Definitions 14

Others' View 16

Dictionary Definitions 18

An Alternative Definition 19

Key Issues 21

Is fossilization global or local? 21

Is fossilization a product or a process? 22

Summary 23

3 Behavioral Reflexes and Causal Variables 25

An Overview 25

Sample Explanations 28

Absence of corrective feedback 28

Quality of input 30

Lack of access to universal grammar 30

Failure of parameter resetting 30

Learning inhibiting learning 31

Automatization of faulty knowledge 31

Lack of understanding 32

Processing constraints 32

Lack of sensitivity to input 32

Change in emotional state 33

Naturalinclination to focus on content,not on form 33

Avoidance 34

Satisfaction of communicative needs 34

Lack of acculturation 35

Will to maintain identity 36

Two Primary Determinants of Lack of Ability 38

Summary 42

4 A Macroscopic Analysis:Critical Period Effects 44

The Critical Period Hypothesis 44

CPH in FLA and SLA 46

The Modular Nature of CP 55

Critical Period Effects on Language Learning 57

Summary 62

5 A Macroscopic Analysis:Native Language Transfer 65

Transfer-inspired Delay in L2 Learning 68

'Transfer to Somewhere'and'Transfer to Nowhere' 69

Transfer of'Thinking for Speaking' 75

Preprogramming 77

The Schwartz and Sprouse(1996) study 77

The Sorace(1993) study 80

Summary 85

6 A Microscopic Analysis:Some Empirical Evidence 87

Some Empirical Studies 87

The longitudinal approach 88

The typical-error approach 90

The advanced-learner approach 92

The corrective-feedback approach 95

The length-of-residence approach 97

Critique of the Methodologies 97

Two recent longitudinal studies 99

Is stabilization synonymous with fossilization? 102

Should a longitudinal study last five years or longer? 104

The Modular Nature of Fossilization 106

Linguistic Features Prone to Fossilization 112

The Multiple Effects Principle 118

Summary 121

7 Second Language Instruction and Fossilization 125

To What Extent Does Instruction Aid Acquisition? 126

Explicit or implicit instruction? 129

Is grammar instruction necessary? 132

The zone of capability 136

To What Extent Does Instruction Promote Fossilization? 147

Classroom input 151

Pedagogic strategies 157

Opportunity for use of language 161

Summary 161

8 Summary and Conclusion 166

A Synopsis 166

Implications for Research and Practice 169

General Directions for Future Research 174

References 177

Index 198