ISSUES IN AMERICAN FOREIGN POLICYPDF电子书下载

INTRODUCTION The Emergence and evolution of Issues in American Foreign Policy 1

GOALS OF U.S. FOREIGN POLICY 2

CAUSAL FACTORS IN AMERICAN FOREIGN POLICY 6

Systemic Factors and the Evolution of U.S. Foreign Policies 8

Societal Forces and the U.S. Response to Emerging and Reemerging Issues 14

Role and Idiosyncratic Factors 21

Post-Cold War Grand Strategy 25

MODELS OF U.S. DECISION MAKING: RATIONAL ACTOR, ORGANIZATIONAL PROCESS, AND GOVERNMENTAL POLITICS 26

CHAPTER 1 Conventional Force Structure 37

INTRODUCTION 37

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND TO THE ISSUE 38

THE INITIAL POST-COLD WAR CONVENTIONAL FORCE STRUCTURE DEBATE 46

REFINEMENT OF THE DEBATE CONCERNING U.S. CONVENTIONAL FORCE STRUCTURE 49

THE STRATEGIC PROBLEM FOR THE EARLY 21ST-CENTURY U.S. CONVENTIONAL FORCES 55

CHAPTER 2 Ballistic Missile defense 72

INTRODUCTION 72

FACTORS LEADING TO THE INITIAL STRATEGIC DEFENSE INITIATIVE PROPOSAL 73

U.S. AND SOVIET COMPETITION IN NUCLEAR WEAPONS AND DELIVERY SYSTEMS 75

THE REAGAN STRATEGIC BUILDUP 79

THE REAGAN INITIATIVE TO DEVELOP A STRATEGIC DEFENSE SYSTEM 83

THE DEClINE OF SDI AS A FOREIGN POLICY OPTION 84

THE REEMERGENCE OF BALLISTIC MISSILE DEFENSE AS A FOREIGN POLICY ISSUE 88

THE BUSH JR. ADMINISTRATION, THE NUCLEAR POSTURE REVIEW, AND THE EMERGING CONTEXT OF NATIONAL MISSILE DEFENSE 98

CHAPTER 3 Weapons of Mass Destruction 109

INTRODUCTION 109

CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL WEAPONS BEFORE THE COLD WAR PERIOD 110

CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL WEAPONS DURING THE COLD WAR PERIOD 112

Biological Weapons Convention 114

Nuclear Weapons 115

THE END OF THE COLD WAR AND PROGRESS IN CONSTRAINING WMD 117

International Nuclear Agreements 118

The Chemical Weapons Convention 118

THE REEMERGING ISSUE OF WMD 120

ADDRESSING THE REEMERGING ISSUE OF WMD 124

CHAPTER 4 International terrorism 142

INTRODUCTION 142

U.S. POLICY ON TERRORISM 144

THE SOURCES OF TERRORISM 148

OUTLINE OF THE U.S. POLICY RESPONSE 148

DEFINITIONAL QUAGMIRES 151

CONVENTIONAL TERRORISM 156

NUCLEAR, BIOLOGICAL, AND CHEMICAL WEAPONS TERRORISM 158

CYBERTERRORISM AND INFORMATION WARFARE 165

The Nature of Cyberterrorism 165

U.S. Government Responses to International Cyberterrorism 167

COSTS VERSUS BENEFITS AND RISKS VERSUS REWARDS--THE EVOLUTION OF U.S. POLICY TOWARD TERRORISTS 172

HOMELAND SECURITY--U.S. RESPONSE TO TERRORISM 177

CHAPTER 5 Transnational Organized Crime*194+INTRODUCTION 194

TRANSNATIONAL ORGANIZED CRIME GROUPS 199

DRUG TRAFFICKING 203

DRUG PRODUCTION CHAINS--THE COLOMBIAN COCAINE CARTELS 208

Phase One (1974-1980) 209

Phase Two (1981-1986) 211

Phase Three (1987-1994) 213

Phase Four (1994-present) 216

Plan Colombia 218

CHAPTER 6 Humanitarian Intervention 230

INTRODUCTION 230

HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF PRE-COLD WAR* U.S. HUMANITARIAN INTERVENTION 232

HUMANITARIAN INTERVENTION DURING THE COLD WAR 235

HUMANITARIAN INTERVENTION IN A POST-COLD WAR WORLD 238

CASE STUDIES: HUMANITARIAN INTERVENTION IN THE POST-COLD WAR WORLD 239

The Kurds, 1991 240

Somalia 240

Haiti 244

Bosnia 246

Kosovo 249

CASE STUDIES: REFRAINING FROM INTERVENTION 253

Afghanistan 253

Rwanda 256

Sudan 257

The Kurds, 1992-2001 258

CHAPTER 7 Environmental Degradation 275

INTRODUCTION 275

THE EMERGENCE OF GLOBAL WARMING AND OZONE LAYER DEPLETION ON THE U.S. FOREIGN POLICY AGENDA 276

OZONE DEPLETION 278

Chlorofluorocarbons 278

The Vienna Convention 280

The Montreal Protocol 281

CLIMATE CHANGE 282

Scientific Evidence for Global Warming 283

Why Scientific Support for Global Warming was Insufficient to Change Policy 284

The issue of Global Warming During the Bush Sr. Administration 287

Changes in U.S. Policy During the Clinton Administration 289

The Kyoto Protocol 291

GENERAL FACTORS INFLUENCING THE DEVELOPMENT OF U.S. POLICY REGARDING GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE AND OZONE-DEPLETING COMPOUNDS 292

UNRESOLVED PROBLEMS AND THE REEMERGENCE OF GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE AS A CONTENTIOUS FOREIGN POLICY ISSUE FOR THE UNITED STATES 292

THE POLICIES OF THE BUSH JR. ADMINISTRATION 295

FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR U.S. POLICY REGARDING GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE AND OZONE DEPLETION 296

Ozone Depletion 298

Crosscutting Issues 300

CHAPTER 8 Biodiversity 311

INTRODUCTION 311

HISTORY OF U.S. INVOLVEMENT IN THE ISSUE OF SPECIES AND HABITAT PROTECTION 313

THE ARRAY OF FORCES CONCERNED WITH BIODWERSITY ISSUES 314

WILDLIFE PROTECTION 320

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna 321

Biodiversity Convention 322

INVASWE SPECIES PROBLEM 324

ONGOING ISSUES CONCERNING BIODIVERSITY 325

CLONING 330

CHAPTER 9 Sustainable development 340

INTRODUCTION 340

THE CONFUSED CLASSIFICATIONS OF DEVELOPMENT 342

U.S. DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE POLICIES IN THE 1950s 344

U.S. DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE POLICIES IN THE 1960s 346

U.S. DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE IN THE 1970s 348

U.S. DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE IN THE 1980s 351

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND POPULATION GROWTH IN THE 1980s 352

THE EMERGING CONCEPT OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 353

POPULATION, SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, AND U.S. FOREIGN POLICY IN THE LATE 1980s AND 1990s 355

DEBT BURDEN IN THE 1980s-1990s 357

CLINTON, MULTILATERALISM, AND THE MOVEMENT TOWARD SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE 358

U.S. FOREIGN POLICY AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN THE 21ST CENTURY 361

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND DEBT BURDEN 362

DEBT RELIEF AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN THE 21ST CENTURY 363

CHAPTER 10 PANDEMIC DISEASE 376

INTRODUCTION 376

IN THE PAST 383

U.S. SUPPORT FOR INTERNATIONAL ACTION AIMED AT ADDRESSING SPECIFIC ENDEMIC AND POTENTIALLY PANDEMIC DISEASES 384

HIV/AIDS 385

Malaria 389

Tuberculosis 392

THE RESPONSE OF THE BUSH JR. ADMINISTRATION TO THE ISSUE OF PANDEMIC DISEASE 394

PANDEMIC DISEASE AND THE EMERGING CONFLICT WITH U.S. TRADE POLICIES 395

CHAPTER 11 International Energy Policy 413

INTRODUCTION 413

BACKGROUND TO THE ISSUE 415

THE 1990s AND THE EMERGENCE OF CONCERN FOR INTERNATIONAL ENERGY POLICIES 422

ACTORS AND FACTORS AFFECTING INTERNATIONAL ENERGY POLICY 424

Energy Sanctions as a Part of U.S. Energy Policy 426

Domestic Factors and U.S. Energy Policy 427

FUTURE U.S. INTERNATIONAL ENERGY POLICY OPTIONS 429

CHAPTER 12 The IMF and International Monetary Management 443

INTRODUCTION 443

THE EVOLUTION OF U.S. POLICY TOWARD THE IMF IN THE POST-WORLD WAR II PERIOD 446

International Currency Stability 446

The Role of the U.S. Dollar 449

The United States as the Unilateral Money Manager, 1947-1960 450

Political Advantages of Unilateralism to the United States 450

The End of U.S. Unilateral Mone3/Management 451

THE UNITED STATES AND THE RISE AND DECLINE OF MULTILATERAL MANAGEMENT 452

A Diminished U.S. Role 452

Establishment of the Group of Ten 452

The Creation of Artificial International Currency (Special Drawing Rights) 452

The Growing Influence of Transnational Corporations 453

Growing Interdependence of the United States, Western Europe, and Japan U.S. Attempts to Reassert Unilateral Money Management 454

The Group of Twenty 454

EXPANDING INTERDEPENDENCE AND MULTILATERAL MANAGEMENT 455

The Impact of Increasing Oil Prices 455

The Impact of Policies of the U.S. Federal Reserve Bank (the Fed) 458

U.S. POLICIES AND THE DEBT CRISIS OF THE 1980s 459

U.S. Lending and Aid Policies and the Debt of NICs and Other LDCs 459

Proposed Solutions to Ending Debt of LDCs 460

THE 1980s DEBT CRISIS AND U.S. POLICY TOWARD THE IMF 461

Difference in Treatment of NIC Latin American Debt and Other LDC Debt by the United States 461

Expansion of Borrowing RIghts to Countries Outside the Group of Ten 463

The Baker Plan: A New Strategy for Growth Among Indebted States 464

Limited Success of the Baker Plan 465

Stopgap Measures (Debt Equity Swaps, Debt Swaps, and Bonds) After the Baker Plan 466

Threatened Political Stability of LDCs and Debt Forgiveness 467

The Restructuring of Debt Under the Brady Initiative 468

THE UNITED STATES, THE IMF, AND THE DEBT CRISES OF THE 1990s: MORE OPEN ECONOMIES 468

The Mexican Crisis of 1994 469

Lessons in Monitoring the Economic and Political Stability of Loan Recipients 469

Dangers ora Rapid Move to Open Economies 471

The United States and IMF Loans to Russia: Russia's Transition to an Open Economy 471

Stabilizing Russia with Advice and Loans from the IMF 472

The Role of Limited IMF Aid to Russia in the Election of Antireformers to the Duma 473

Additional IMF Loans for Russia with New Conditional ties 474

The Rise in Influence of Oligarchies and Their impact on Political and Economic Stability 474

The Failure of New Loans by the IMF to Stabilize Russia and the Continued Need for IMF involvement in Pressuring Russia 476

The United States, the IME and the Asian Financial Crisis 476

Initial Economic Stability and Growth in East Asia 476

Failure of the United States and IMF to Prevent Dangerous Asian Lending Practices 477

OUTSTANDING POLICY ISSUES FOR THE UNITED STATES ASSOCIATED WITH INTERNATIONAL FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT 479

Moral Hazard 480

International Financial Standards and Transparency 481

Conditional ties 482

CHAPTER 13 International Trade Policy 496

INTRODUCTION 497

BACKGROUND TO THE ISSUE 497

KEY ELEMENTS OF THE GATI 499

U.S. LEADERSHIP UNDER THE GATT 500

THE GROWTH OF INTERDEPENDENCE, THE DECLINE OF THE COLD WAR, AND RENEWED PROTECTIONIST PRESSURES 501

The Tokyo Round 505

NAFTA 507

INTERNATIONAL CIVIL SOCIETY AND THE EMERGING FREE TRADE CONTROVERSY 508

CHAPTER 14 Management of International Resources 523

INTRODUCTION 523

INTERNATIONAL FISHERiES MANAGEMENT 524

The Development of Fisheries as a U.S. Foreign Policy Issue 525

The Development of a Coordinated U.S. Fisheries Policy 527

Pressures for Unilateral Action, 1960-1970 529

The Rise and Decline of Multilateral Management Policy--1970-1975 531

UNCLOS III 531

The U.S. Fisheries Conservation Zone, 1976 532

The Unfinished and Reemerging Problem of Protecting the World's Marine Living Resources 536

U.S. Options in the Twenty-First Century 539

FRESHWATER RESOURCES 541

OUTER SPACE 543

The Existing International Legal Framework of Outer Space 543

Emerging Issues of Outer Space 543

THE ANTARCTIC 547

The Antarctic Treaty System 548

Emerging Issues 549

CHAPTER 15 Democratization 564

INTRODUCTION 564

THE EVOLUTION OF DEMOCRATIZATION AS A GOAL OF U.S. FOREIGN POLICY PRIOR TO WORLD WAR II 566

Rhetoric and Reality: Democratization and U.S. Foreign Policy, 1945-1975 568

Democratization and the Carter Administration 571

Democratization as a Policy Issue in the Reagan Administration 573

Democratization and U.S. Policy in the Bush Sr. Administration 575

DEMOCRATIZATION AS A FOCUS FOR U.S. FOREIGN POLICY 577

THE IMPACT OF THE BROADENING OF DEMOCRATIZATION 580

Targeted Democratization Programs 581

Assessment of U.S. Democratization Efforts 582

CONCLUSION 595

ISSUE AREA ANALYSIS 595

THE EVOLUTION OF ISSUES ON THE U.S. FOREIGN POLICY AGENDA 596

Technological Innovation 597

Economic Interdependence 599

Changes in the International System 599

THE EVOLUTION OF U.S. POLICY TO ADDRESS EMERGING ISSUES 600

Systemic Factors 600

Domestic Factors 600

Idiosyncratic Factors 601

Crosscutting Factors 602

THE INTERRELATIONSHIP OF ISSUES 606

THE PROCESS AND PROSPECTS FOR THE EMERGENCE AND EVOLUTION OF ISSUES IN U.S. FOREIGN POLICY 609

Notes 609

Index 610